BIO 111

Zoology

Dr Thomson Sanudi, PhD

The University of Malawi
Bunda College of Agriculture
Basic Sciences Department
Bio 111- Part III: Zoology
• Zoology= study of animals.
• What are animals?- It is virtually difficult to draw a line
around the limits of animals but the following
characterises most animals.
o are multicellular eukaryotes
o have specialised cells
o are heterothrophic
o are motile
o are sensitive
o are mostly diploid and reproduce by sexual means

• Zoology involves classification, evolution,

development, physiology, form and function,
behaviour, ecology etc.
 Bio 111- Part III: Zoology
Classification of animals based on phylogeny uses
o fossils
o body plans e.g. body symmetry, body cavities,
o pattern of development e.g. pattern of cleavage
o molecular methods e.g. 16sRNA
Body symmetry: - arrangement of body
structures in relation to main axis

e.g. Phylum Porifera e.g. Phylum Cnidaria e.g.

mammals
 Bio 111- Part III: Zoology
Body cavities (coelem) : - arrangement of
embryonic tissue layers/germ layers
o Diploblast – have (i) ectoderm which gives rise to the outer
covering and the nervous system (ii) endoderm which lines
the digestive system. e.g. Phylum Porifera
o Triploblast – have mesoderm between the ectoderm and
endoderm. The mesoderm gives rise to muscles, skeletal and
circulatory systems.
Bio 111- Part III: Zoology
Based on
presence/absence and
type of cavities animals
can be acoelomate e.g.
Phylum Platyhelminthes,
pseudocoelomate e.g.
Phylum Nematoda or
coelomates e.g.Mollusks
 Bio 111- Part III: Zoology
• Pattern of cleavage: - coelomates form two main
evolutionary lines based on cleavage
o Protostomes – spiral and determinate cleavage,
blastopore forms the mouth, coelem is schizolous e.g.
Phyla Molluska, Annelida, Athropoda
o Deuterostomes – radial and indeterminate cleavage,
blastopore forms the anus, coelem is enterocoelom e.g
Chordates
 Bio 111- Part III: Zoology
• Cladogram of the animal kingdom

Mollusk
Annelida
Hemichordata
Platyhelminthes Nematoda

Cnidaria
Arthropoda Chordata
Porifera

Flagellated ancestors
 Phylum Protozoa
• Proto = first, zoa = animal ( first animals)
 1675: Leeuwenhoek saw under his microscope protozoans for
the first time
 1786: about 400sp were already known
 1836: scientists believed protozoa were just minature
animals
 1846: the idea of unicellular animals was accepted

• Most Protozoans are not photosynthetic but

others have chloroplasts
• They are ubiquitous (found in any place)
provided there is some moisture.
• They exist as single cells or in colonies. Colonial
species are connected through cytplasimic
bridges by which cellular activities are
synchronised.
 Phylum Protozoa
• Morphology- have a regular size but shape is variable
• Form- the form is maintained by the consistence of the
cytoplasm or the cell membrane = Pellicle, some have
skeletons, shells or testa
• Cytoplasm- there are two types (a) clear or hyalin which is
outside- endoplasm/plasmogel (b) granular which is inside-
ectoplasm/plasmosol
• Nuclei- some have double others one, most ciliates have
double (a) macronucleus /majornucleus for vegetative growth
and (b) micronucleus/minornucleus for reproduction
• Vacuoles- there are two types (a) food vacuole (b) contractile
vacuole for osmoregulation
 Phylum Protozoa
• Nutrition- they can be autotrophic, heterotrophic or
saprozoic
• Secretions- they secrete enzymes, poison for defence, shells
or gas bubbles for buoyancy
• Excretion may be by diffusion or through contractile
vacuoles
• Most Protozoans respond to stimuli (gravity, temperature,
salt concentration, light) but response is localised to the
area of stimuli.
• Reproduction can be asexual in the form of binary fission,
schizogony (multiple fission) or budding. Sexual
reproduction is observed in ciliates and sporozoans
 Phylum Protozoa: Classes
• Class mastigophora- have one or more
flagellum, the flagella have an internal 9+2
fibre arrangement, each flagellum has a basal
body that controls the flagella, have a pigment
spot which is a photoreceptor. Scattered in the
cytoplasm are storage bodies called
paramylum.
• The 2 subclasses of class mastigophora are:-
Phytomastigopha e.g. Eulglena and Volvox
and Zoomastigophora e.g. Trypanosoma spp.
Phylum Protozoa: Classes

Euglena Volvox sp
sp
Euglena is photosynthetic/saprophytic, free living and reproduce
by binary fission. Volvox is colonial.
 Phylum Protozoa: Classes
• Trypanosoma spp. (T. brucei, T. rhodensese, T.
gambiense, T. cruzei) and Trychonymph spp. are
examples of Zoomastigophora

• Trypanosoma spp are parasitic, they cause

trypanomiasis/sleeping sickness, usually they
have two hosts one a vertebrate and an
invertebrate (Glossina mortisan) but T. cruzei
causes chaga’s disease and its transmitted by
reduviid bud.

• Another important disease caused by

zoomastigophora is leishmaniasis/kalaazar
caused by Leishmania spp it is transmitted by
sand fly Phlebotomus.

Learn the life cycle of trypanomiasis on the pages pages attached!

 Phylum Protozoa: Classes
• Class Rhizopoda- unicellular organisms found in
soil, water and as parasites. They posses temporary
projections of cytoplasm called pseudopodia for
locomotion and hunting. They feed by engulfing food
particles into food vacuoles by phagocytosis.
• Reproduction is by binary fission but may also
develop cyst which survive adverse conditions.
• After months of active division they feed less and
sporulate, each spore develops a cyst to survive
harsh conditions. When conditions are favourable the
spores germinate.
Phylum Protozoa: Classes

Amoeba and Entamoeba histolytica are typical examples of the

class. Other examples which are adapted for floating are
Foraminifera and Radiolaria with calcareous shells and fine
pseudopodia and perforated siliceous shells respectively.

Foraminifera Radiolaria
Phylum Protozoa: Classes
• Class Ciliophora- majority are ciliated, others
have tentacles. They posses two types of nuclei
minornuclei and meganuclei. They also have
trichocysts for hunting and defense. Examples
of the class are Paramecium, Stentor, Vorticella,
Opalinata and Acineta. They have contractile
vacuoles, but paramecium have channels that
carry water out of a full vacuole.
• Reproduction can be sexual (conjugation) or
asexual.
Learn the process of conjugation in ciliates on the attached page!
Phylum Protozoa: Classes
• Class Sporozoa- lack flagella or cilia. They
are exclusively parasitic and reproduce by
means of spores. The two sub classes are
Telosporidia in which the adult trophozoite is
unicellular e.g. Order haemosporidia where
Plasmodium spp responsible for malaria in
vertebrates is an example. Neosporidia is
another sub-class in which the adult
trophozoite is multicellular examples of which
is Myxidium sp in fish and Sarcocysts sp in
pigs.

Learn the life cycle of malaria on the attached

pages!
Phylum Porifera
• Sponges are diploblasts but have a mesohyl
layer between the inner and outer layers
supported by proteinaceous, siliceous, or
calcareous spicules.

• Mesohyl layer has amoeboid choanocytes/collar

cells that serve for digestion and transport. They
have a flagellum surrounded by collar or
microvilli.
Phylum Porifera
• Surface of sponges has incurrent pores (Ostia)
and excurrent pores called oscula. The pores
are connected to form a system of internal
canals and a spongocoel lined with
choanocytes.
• Sponges circulate water in these cannals and in
the process filter food particles. Digestion is
either in the collar cells or amoebic cells
• They can reproduce asexually by means of
gemmules which are small groups of cells that
break away from the main body. They can also
reproduce sexually.
• Most are hermaphrodites, they avoid self
fertilisation by avoiding simultaneous maturity
of the male and female sex cells and release
into the water.
Phylum Porifera: Classes

• Class Calcarea- chalky skeleton- Calcarea are

further classified based on complexity and
arrangement of internal channels as Asconoid,
Syconoid and Leuconoid

• Class Hexactinellia – have glass/silica skeleton

made up of sic rayed spicules

• Class Demospongiae – have proteinous

spongin skeleton, others have silica most have a
combination.
 Phylum Cnidarian
• Cnidaria have radial symmetry with one or more
whorls of tentacles surrounding the oral
opening. The mouth is the only opening leading
to the gastrovascular cavity.
• Cnidarians display polymorphism (dimorphism).
The two forms are the pelagic medusae and the
benthic polyp forms
Phylum Cnidarian - Classes
• Class Hydrozoa: - e.g. Hydra and
Aurelia, alternates between polyp and
medusae forms but the polyp is generally
dominant

• Class Scyphozoa: - e.g. Jelly fish and

Obelia, medusae form is dominant, the
poly form is either absent short-lived

• Class Anthozoa: - e.g. sea anemomes,

corals and sea fans, they are
sessile/solitary or colonial polypoids there
is no medusae form
 Phylum Platyhelminthes

• Triploblastic worm like, bilateral symmetry with

no legs, soft bodied and they are longer than
width. They have a recognized dorsal, ventral,
posterior and anterior ends (Cephalisation).

• The mesoderm is not solid, it has individual

connective tissue mesenchyme/parenchyma. It
provides tissue for developing organs.

• They have hydrostatic skeletons that support

their body
 Phylum Platyhelminthes
• Some are free living others are parasitic. Free
living forms have cilia on the ventral side. If a gut
is present it is trichard and may have muscular
pharynx to take up food.

• Parasitic forms are highly adapted for parasitic

lifestyle, they have adhesive structures, they are
resistant to host digestive enzymes, have
complicated life cycles, produce large numbers of
eggs, others have lost their gut but have
endodermal cells, food is taken by absorption.

• They are hermaphroditic, also have the power of

regeneration and may reproduce asexually by
snapping
Phylum Platyhelminthes-
Classes
Class Turbellaria
• A typical example is Planaria. Mainly free living
mostly marine some inhabit freshwater habitants.
Phylum Platyhelminthes- Classes
Class Trematoda (Schistosoma spp and
Fasciola spp)

Trematoda are endoparasitic flukes, usually with a

complex life cycle. Many have one or more hosts
first or intermediate host is a Mollusk and the final
host is usually a vertebrate.

Life cycle of trematodes vary from species to

species but a typical example would include
adult, egg, shelled zygote, miracidium, sporocyte,
redia, cercaria and metacercaria stages
Phylum Platyhelminthes-
Classes
Phylum Platyhelminthes- Classes
Class Cestoda (Taenia spp)
• These include the tapeworms, they differ from the
other classes in that they usually have a long flat
body made up of many reproductive units called
proglotids and lack a digestive system, they do
not have cilia in the adult stage, have synctial
tegument especially adapted for their parasitic
life style. Body is covered with microvilli which are
important because tapeworms absorb all their
nutrients across the tegument. The tegument also
prevent digestion by the host enzymes
Phylum Platyhelminthes-
Classes
Phylum Mollusk
• This includes, Clams, Oysters, Octopus, Snails, Slugs
and Squids.
• They are a group of soft-bodied animals which
secrete protective shells composed of calcium
carbonate.
• They have a muscular organ called the foot used for
locomotion.
• Viscera mass is above the foot which is covered by a
mantle. The visceral mass contains glands that
secrete the mantle and the shell.
Phylum Mollusk
 Phylum Mollusk
• Some are dioecious (have separate males and females) others are
hermaphrodites.
• Hermaphrodites exchange spermatophores to avoid self fertilisation.
Most land mollusks produce shelled eggs while aquatic forms lay eggs
in gelatinous masses or enclosed in capsules.
• The coelom is filled with blood which is circulated in open circulatory
system
Classes- Class Polyplacophora
• These have many shells like in Chiton. The head is reduced, has no
eyes or tentacles but has a row of gills between the foot and the
mantle. Sexes are separete.
 Class Gastropoda
• E.g. Garden snails
• Embryo are bilaterally symmetrical but adults are asymmetrical
because they undergo TORSION.
 Classes- Class Bivalvia

• They have two shells joined by a pair of ligament.

• Mostly sedentary filter feeders that depend on currents created by
gill filaments
• They are bilaterally symmetrical.
• The shell is for protection but in other forms they have teeth for
rasping wood.
 Classes- Cephalopoda
• They includes squids and octopuses.
• All are marine are active predators
• The shell is internal and may have gas chambers for bouyancy
• The foot is made up of tentacles and a siphon which is used for
locomotion or hunting
• Sexes are separate and they exchange male sex cells in
spermatophores.
• Eggs are fertilised as they leave the oviduct
Phylum Annelida
• These are segmented worms exhibiting metamerism (made up of
serially repeated parts)
• Both the body and internal organs except the digestive tract are
segmented. In some worms the segments are separated by SEPTA
• Have a thin cuticle secreted by epidermis, beneath the epidermis are
circular and longitudinal muscles.
 Phylum Annelida
• Have well developed coelom except leeches with a closed circulatory
system.
• Respiration is cutaneous with respiratory pigments like haemoglobin.
Blood plasma has amoebocyte cells.
• Reproduction is sexual but some reproduce by budding
Classes – Class Polychaeta
• E.g. lugworms, sandworms/clamworm (Nereis)
• Have many bristles per segment.
• Have well developed anterior end with sensory organs
• Have no permanent sex organs, gonads appear as temporary
swellings and shed gametes into the coelom then out through
gonadoduct or by rapture of the body.
Classes – Class Oliogochaeta

• E.g. earthworms
• Mostly terrestrial or fresh water
• Bear few bristles per segment and lack well developed head
• Burrow in the soil and eat their way, they are nocturnal animals
• They have gizzards for digestion.
Classes- Class Hirudinea
• E.g. leeches
• Mostly freshwater,
• Has fixed number of segments (34)
• They differ from other Annelids in that they have
neither setae nor parapodia except in one Genus
• Most leeches have muscular proboscis or muscular
pharnyx with three jaws with teeth.
• Blood sucking leeches produce hirudin as an
anticoagulant.
Phylum Nematoda
• Examples are : -
• Hookworms;
• Roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides); Pinworms ( Esterghiius vermicules)
• Trichina worms are interstinal parasites to pigs, rats and bears;
• Filaris (Vuchereria bancrofti) is a parasite affecting the lymphatic system and
causes elephantiasis
 Phylum Nematoda
• Have elongated cylindrical bodies pointed at both
ends.
• Have cuticle and below the cuticle are longitudinal
and circular muscles.
• Roundworms are unique in that they lack circular
muscles which accounts for their curvature motions.
• Parasitic nematodes have anaerobic energy
metabolism while free living nematodes are aerobic.
• They are mostly dioecious with males being smaller
that females and fertilisation is internal
 Phylum Arthropoda

• Are segmented animals with chitinous exoskeleton

with flexible membranes that act as joints
• They have efficient tracheal system for respiration
that makes high metabolic rates possible. The
circulatory system does not carry gasses.
• Have haemolymph for distribution of food nutrients,
removal of wastes, act as a reservoir of food and
water and provide immunity, blood pressure helps in
egg hatching and moulting
Phylum Arthropoda
• They are believed to have evolved from Annelida because:-
• Both show metamerism
• Both are bilaterally symmetrical
• The anus is located in the posterior segment
• The CNS is a double ventral solid nerve ventral to the gut
• Both have paired appendages
• Both have cuticle
Phylum Arthropoda
• Arthropods are said to be successful because : -
• They are great in numbers
• Great number of species
• Wide distribution
• Ability to live in a variety of habitats
• A variety of feeding habits
• Great ability to adopt to changing conditions
Phylum Arthropoda
• The following are adaptations for their success: -

• Segmentation, so parts can be specialised for specific

functions
• Paired and jointed appendages can be modified for
specific functions
• Have a variety of sensory organs
• Have open circulatory system which does not carry gases
and have an efficient tracheal system
• Excretory system consists of malphigian tubules lying close
to blood vessels
Phylum Arthropoda
• Subphylum Chelicerata
• Class Arachnida e.g. Spiders, Ticks, Scorpions Mites)
• Class Merostomata e.g. Horseshoe crabs

• Suphylum Crustacea
• Class Crustacea e.g. crab

• Subphylum Uniramia
• Class chilopoda e.g. centipedes
• Class Diplopoda e.g. millipedes
• Class Insecta e.g. grasshoper, roaches, ants, bees,
butterfly, flies beetles
Vertebrate Zoology

• Verterates have serially arranged small bones/vertebral column, with

e cranium/skull = craniates
• They share some characteristics with marine invertebrate called
Protochordata
• Protochordata and verterabrate are called Phylum Chordata
Phylum Chordata

• Characteristics of Phylum Chordata

• Presence of notochord
• Presence of dorsal-tubular nerve cord
• Presence of pharyngeal gill slits which persist in fish in other groups they
become jaws and inner ear bones
Phylum Chordata
Classification of Phylum Chordata

• Kingdom = Animalia
• Phylum = Chordata
• Subphylum = Urochodarta (Tunicates)
= Cephalochordata (amphioxus)
= Vertebrata/Craniata
Phylum Chordata
• Subphylum vertebrata is divided into two supper classes
• Supper class Agnatha (lamprey,Hagfish)
• Super class Gnathostomata
Class Chondrioichythes (Cartilagenous fish)
Class Osteichythes (Bony fish)
Class amphibia
Class Reptilia
Class Aves/birds
Class Mammalias