INTRODUCTION

▪ Digital systems play a prominent role in everyday life. The present technological period is referred
to as “Digital Age”.
▪ Digital system is a system that manipulates discrete elements of information represented internally
in binary form.
▪ Any set that is restricted to a finite number of elements is called discrete information.
▪ E.g.: 10 decimal digits, 26 alphabets etc. are discrete information.
▪ Examples for digital systems include digital telephones, digital televisions, digital versatile discs
(DVD), digital cameras, digital computers.
▪ In order to understand the operation of digital systems, it is necessary to have a basic knowledge
of digital circuits and their logic functions.

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 NUMBER SYSTEM
▪ Number system is an ordered set of symbols known as digits with rules defined for performing arithmetic
operations like addition ,subtraction , multiplication and division.
There are mainly two types of Number system
1.Non-Positional Number System
2. Positional Number Systems

1.Non-Positional Number System

Characteristics
▪ Use symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII for 4, IIIII for 5, etc.
▪ Each symbol represents the same value regardless of its position in the number
▪ The symbols are simply added to find out the value of a particular number
▪ examples are gray code, roman code, excess-3 code, etc
Difficulty
▪ It is difficult to perform arithmetic with such a number system
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 NUMBER SYSTEM
2.Positional Number Systems
Characteristics.
▪ Use only a few symbols called digits
▪ These symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number.
▪ The value of each digit is determined by:
1. The digit itself
2. The position of the digit in the number
3.The base of the number system(base total number of digits in the number .
4.The maximum value of a single digit in system is always equal to one less than the value of
the base.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF POSITIONAL NUMBER
SYSTEM
There are mainly 4 commonly used positional number system
1.Decimal Number System
2.Hexadecimal Number System
3.Binary Number System
4.Octal Number System
▪ A number in a number system mainly has 2 parts
1.Integer Part
2.Fractional Part
▪ The integer and the fractional part is separated by a radix point(.)
▪ The value of coefficient ‘a’ range in the value 0 to r-1.

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 DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Characteristics
▪ A positional number system
▪ Has 10 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9). Hence, its base = 10.
▪ The maximum value of a single digit is 9 (one , less than the value of the base)
▪ Each position of a digit represents a specific power of the base (10)
▪ It is used in our day-to-day life activities.
▪ Eg: 4598 = 4000+500 +90+8
=4x1000 +5x100+ 9×10 + 8 x1
=4X103 +5X10² +9×10¹ +8×10°
96.248 =90+6+0·2+0.04 + 0.008
= 9x10+6x1 + 2/ 10 + 4/100 +8/1000
=9×10¹ +6×10° +2×10-¹ +4×10-²+ 8×10-3

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 BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
Characteristics
▪ A positional number system
▪ Has only 2 symbols or digits (0 and 1). Hence its base = 2
▪ The maximum value of a single digit is 1 (one less than the value of the base)
▪ Each position of a digit represents a specific power of the base (2)
▪ It is used in computers.
▪ Eg: 11011 = 1x24+1x23 +0x2²+1×21 + 1 x 2°
= 1x16 +1x8+ 0x4 + 1x2 + 1x 1
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1
= (27)
111.0101 = 1x2² + 1 x 21 + 1 x 2° +0x2-1 +1x2-2+ 0× 2-³ + 1x2-4
= 4 + 2 +1+0 +0·5 + 0.0625
=7.5625

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 HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Characteristics
▪ A positional number system
▪ Has total 16 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F). Hence its base = 16
▪ The symbols A, B, C, D, E and F represent the decimal values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 respectively
▪ The maximum value of a single digit is 15 (one less than the value of the base).
▪ Hexadecimal Numbers are extensively used in microprocessors. Hexadecimal numbers are much shorter than
binary numbers and are useful in electronic representation of numbers Using hexadecimal numbers makes it very
easy to convert back and forth from binary numbers, because each hexadecimal digit corresponds to exactly 4 bits.
▪ It is also called as alpha numeric number system.
eg: 8A0F = 8x16³ +Ax162+0X161+FX16°
= 8x4096+Ax 256+0+Fx1
=4096 +10 x 256 +0 +15
=32,768 + 2560 +15
=(35,343)10

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 OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Characteristics
▪ A positional number system.
▪ Has total 8 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
▪ Hence, its base = 8
▪ The maximum value of a single digit is 7 (one less than the value of the base)
▪ Each position of a digit represents a specific power of the base (8)
▪ Since there are only 8 digits, 3 bits (2³ = 8) are sufficient to represent any octal number in binary
Example:
2057 = (2 x 8³) + (0 x 8²) + (5 x 81¹) + (7 x 8°)
=1024+0+ 40 + 7
=(1071)10

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SUMMARY OF NUMBER SYSTEM

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SUMMARY OF NUMBER SYSTEM

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 CONVERTING ANY BASE TO DECIMAL
The given formula in the general equation that is used for converting any base system to Decimal Number
system.

Where N is the number in decimal.

b is the digit in any of the base(binary ,octal , hexadecimal)
q is the base of the number being converted(binary , octa, hexadecimal)
n is the position of the bit in the number.

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 CONVERSION OF ANY BASE TO DECIMAL

1.CONVERSION OF BINARY TO DECIMAL

Technique
▪ Multiply each bit by 2n, where n is the "weight" of the bit.
▪ The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right.
▪ Add the results.
Example 1:
1011.11₂ = (1x2³) + (0x2² ) + (1x2¹ ) + (1x20) + (1x2-1) + (1x2-2)
=8 +0+2+1+0.5+0.25
=(11.75)10

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 CONVERSION OF ANY BASE TO DECIMAL

Example 2:
(101.1101)2
N = 1×2 2 + 0×2 1 + 1×2 0 + 1×2 -1 + 1×2 -2 + 0×2 -3 + 1×2 -4
=4+0+1+0.5+0.25+0+0.0625
=(5.8125)10
Example 3:
101011₂ =1 × 25+0x24+1x23+0x22+1x21+1x20
=32+0+8+0+2+1
=(43)10

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 CONVERSION OF ANY BASE TO DECIMAL

2.CONVERSION OF OCTAL TO DECIMAL

Technique
▪ Multiply each bit by 8n, where n is the "weight" of the bit.
▪ The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right.
▪ Add the results.
Example 1:
(765.02)8
= 7×8 2 + 6×8 1 + 5×8 0 + 0×8 -1 + 2×8 -2
=7x64+6x8+5x1+0+2/64
=448+48+5+0+0.03125
=(501.03125)10
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 CONVERSION OF ANY BASE TO DECIMAL

3.CONVERSION OF HEXADECIMAL TO DECIMAL

Technique
▪ Multiply each bit by 16n, where n is the "weight" of the bit.
▪ The weight is the position of the bit, starting from 0 on the right.
▪ Add the results.
Example:
(ABC)16
=Ax162+Bx161+Cx160
=10x256+11x16+12x1
=2560+176+12
=(2748)10
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CONVERSION OF DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM TO ANY
BASE
1.Convert integer part(Successive Division Method)
Steps in Successive Division Method
▪ Divide the integer part of decimal number by desired base number store quotient (Q) and
remainder (R)
▪ Consider quotient as a new decimal number and repeat step1 until quotient becomes 0.
▪ List the remainders in the reverse order

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CONVERSION OF DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM TO ANY
BASE
2.Convert fractional part(Successive Multiplication Method)
Steps in Successive Multiplication Method
▪ Multiply the fractional part of decimal number by desired base number
▪ Record the integer part of product as carry and fractional part as new fractional part
▪ Repeat steps 1 and 2 until fractional part of product becomes 0 or until you have many digits as
necessary for your application
▪ Read carries downwards to get desired base number.

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CONVERSION OF DECIMAL TO BINARY NUMBER
SYSTEM

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CONVERSION OF DECIMAL TO BINARY NUMBER
SYSTEM

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 CONVERSION OF DECIMAL TO OCTAL NUMBER
SYSTEM

Problem 1 Problem 2

(110)10=(156)8

(7.16)10=(7.12172)8

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CONVERSION OF DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL
NUMBER SYSTEM

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 CONVERSION OF BINARY NUMBER TO OCTAL
NUMBER SYSTEM
DIRECT METHOD
The base of an octal number is 8. As 8 = 2³ for binary to Octal conversion groups of 3 bits are
formed .Binary numbers can be converted into equivalent octal numbers by making groups of three
bits starting from LSB and moving towards MSB for integer part of the number and then replacing
each group of three bits by its octal representation.
For fractional part the groupings of three bits are made starting from the binary point.

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 CONVERSION OF BINARY NUMBER TO
HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
The base of a hexadecimal
number is 16 = 24 ,for binary to
hexadecimal conversions
groups of four bits are made in
the binary number starting
from the least (LSB) and
moving significant number
towards MSB for integers part
and then replacing each group
of four bits by its hexadecimal
representation
For fractional part the bits are
grouped from the binary point.

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 CONVERSION OF BINARY NUMBER TO OCTAL
NUMBER SYSTEM
Octal number system provides convenient way of converting large binary numbers into more
compact and smaller groups. There are various ways to convert a binary number into octal number.
1.Indirect Method
2.Direct Method
INDIRECT METHOD
(10010110)2=1x27+0x26+0x25+1x24+0x2³+1x2²+1x2¹+0x2⁰
=128+0+0+16+0+4+2+0
= (150)10
Then, convert it into octal number
(150)10
=(226)8
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 CONVERSION OF OCTAL TO BINARY NUMBER
SYSTEM
Octal numbers can be converted into equivalent binary numbers by replacing each octal digit. by its
3-bit binary equivalent.

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CONVERSION OF OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL NUMBER
SYSTEM

In order to convert an Octal number to

hexadecimal number.
First the Octal number is converted to
binary and then convert it to hexadecimal.

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 CONVERSION OF HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
TO BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
Hexadecimal numbers can be converted into equivalent binary numbers by replacing each
hexadecimal digit by its 4-bit binary equivalent.

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 CONVERSION OF HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
TO OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM
In order to convert an hexadecimal number to Octal number .
First the hexadecimal number is converted to binary and then convert it to octal.

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 Boolean Algebra
• An algebraic system defined on the set {0,1} with two binary
operations AND and OR, and one unary operation NOT
• AND operation also called logical product is denoted by “.” or ^
• OR operation also called logical sum is denoted by “+” or “V”.
• NOT operation also called complement is denoted by single quote
or “~” or “-”.
 Boolean Algebra (cont..)
▪Boolean Variables:
Variables that can take on values 0 and 1

▪Boolean Expression:
An expression consisting of switching variables, constants and
operators
Boolean Algebra (cont..)
• Given an Boolean expression, how to prove it?
a) By verifying the expression for all possible values of variables.
• Called truth table verification or perfect induction.
b) By using algebraic equation using some rules.
Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra
Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra (Contd..)
Proof of Boolean laws using Logical Gat
Proof of Boolean laws using Logical Gat
(cont..)
Proof of Boolean expression using Logic
1. A+AB = A

2. A+A’B = A+B
Proof of Boolean expression
using Logical Gates (cont..)
• (A+B).(A+C) = A+BC

0
NAND & NOR as universal logic
gates
• A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function
without need to use any other gate type.
• The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates. In practice, this is
advantageous since NAND and NOR gates are economical and easier
to fabricate and are the basic gates used in all IC digital logic families.
• In fact, an AND gate is typically implemented as a NAND gate followed
by an inverter not the other way around!!
• Likewise, an OR gate is typically implemented as a NOR gate followed
by an inverter not the other way around!!

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 Principles of Duality
• Principle of duality states that:
▪ A switching expression T2 can be obtained from a given switching expression T1 by
interchanging operations AND & OR, and constants 0 & 1.
▪ T1 & T2 are said to be dual of each other.

• Examples:
▪ x+1 = 1 is the dual of x.0 = 0
▪ x+x.y = x is the dual of x.(x+y) = x
▪ x+x’.y = x+y is the dual of x.(x’+y) = xy
Duality theorem
 Simplification Example
• F = A’.B.C+ A.B’.C+A.B.C’+A.B.C
= A’.B.C+ A.B’.C+A.B(C’+C)
= A’.B.C+ A.B’.C+A.B (3 terms where each term is having 3 variables)
• Can the above expression be simplified further?
Simplification (Practice)
• F = A.B’ + A.B + B.C
= A(B’+B) + B.C
= A +BC

• F = A’.B + B’C’+ A.B + B’.C ??

• F = A’.B + B’C’+ A.B + B’.C
= A’.B + A.B +B’C’ + B’.C
= B(A’+A) + B’(C’+C)
= B+B’
=1
De Morgan’s Theorem
• For two variables x and y, De Morgan’s theorem state that:
(x + y)’ = x’ . y’
(x . y)’ = x’+ y’
• Can be easily extended to any number of variables
Gate level minimization /K-Maps
• Forms of Boolean Expression
• A product term is any group of literals that are ANDed together. A sum term
is any group of literals that are ORed together.
• A SOP is group of product terms ORed together.
• POS is any group of sums ANDed together.
Minterm and Maxterm
• For a Boolean expression, a literal is defined as a variable in
complemented or uncomplemented form.
▪ Ex: x,x’,y,y’

• Consider an n-variable function f(x1,x2,…xn)

▪ A product term (that is, an AND operation) of all the n literals is called a
minterm whose result is 1.
▪ A sum term (that is, an OR operation) of all the n literals is called a maxterm
whose result is 0.

• Consider a 3 variable function F(A,B,C)

▪ Examples of minterm: A’.B’.C’, A.B’.C, A.B.C etc.
▪ Examples of maxterm: (A+B’+C’), (A’+B’+C’), (A+B+C) etc.
Minterm and Maxterm (cont..)
Canonical form of representing
Function
• Canonical forms are special cases of SOP and POS forms. These are also
called as standard SOP and POS form.

• A canonical form is a unique way to represent function.

• We can derive two canonical representations directly from truth table:
▪ Canonical sum-of-products
▪ Canonical product-of-sums
Standard SOP form /MINTERM canonical
form
Standard POS form /MAXTERM canonical
form
Converting expressions to standard
SOP
Converting expressions to standard
POS
Convert the expression in to standard
POS form
SOP POS
 Techniques for deriving Boolean expressions from
the truth Table
• The minterm corresponds to each line in the truth table for which the output is 1
are extracted and combined using OR operators. This method results in an
equation said to be in Sum-Of-Product form
• The maxterm corresponds to each line in the truth table for which
the output is 0 are extracted and combined using AND operators. This
method results in an equation said to be in Product-Of-Sum form
Complements of canonical form
Considering POS form and simplification
Full Adder Function
Canonical sum-of-products (cont..)
Canonical sum-of-products (cont..)
• From the truth table, identify all minterms.
• Take the sum of all minterms.
• Example:
S= A’.B’.C + A’.B.C’ + A.B’.C’ + A.B.C
Co = A’.B.C’ + A.B’.C ‘+ A.B.C’ + A.B.C
• We can write down the canonical s-o-p expression in a compact way by
noting down the decimal equivalents of input combinations.
S = ∑(1,2,4,7)
Co= ∑(3,5,6,7)
Canonical product-of-sums
Canonical product-of-sums (cont..)
Canonical product-of-sums (cont..)
• From the truth table, identify all maxterms.
• Take the sum of all maxterms.
• Example:
S= (A+B+C) . (A+B’+C’) . (A’+B+C’) . (A’+B’+C)
Co = (A+B+C) . (A+B+C’) . (A+B’+C) . (A’+B+C)

• We can write down the canonical p-o-s expression in a compact way by

noting down the decimal equivalents of input combinations.
S = ∏(0,3,5,6)
Co= ∏(0,1,2,4)
Write the canonical minterm expression in
Boolean expression and ∑ notation
x y z f
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

f(x,y,z) = x’yz + xy’z + xyz’+ xyz

f(x,y,z) = ∑(3,5,6,7)
Write the canonical maxterm expression in
Boolean expression and Π notation
x y z f
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

f(x,y,z) = (x+y+z).(x+y+z’).(x+y’+z).(x’+y+z)
f(x,y,z) = ∏(0,1,2,4)
Write the truth table for following functi
• f(a,b,c) = a’bc’ + ab’c + abc
a b c f
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
Write the truth table for following ∏ notation and write its
canonical maxterm boolean expression
• f(a,b,c) = ∏(1,4,7)
= (a+b+c’).(a’+b+c).(a’+b’+c’)
a b c f
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Algebraic Procedure to Obtain Canonical
s-o-p
• Examine each term of sum-of-products expression; if it is not a minterm,
go to next step.
• For all the missing variable xi, multiply the term by (xi ‘+ xi).
• Multiply all products and eliminate redundant terms.
Example
Algebraic Procedure to Obtain Canonical
p-o-s
• Examine each term of product-of-sums expression; if it is not a maxterm,
go to next step.
• For all the missing variable xi, multiply the term by xi ‘. xi.
• Obtain the sum terms and eliminate redundant terms.
Example
f(a,b,c) = a’(b’+c’)
= (a’+bb’+cc’).(b’+c+aa’)
= ((a’+b)(a’+b’)+cc’).(b’+(a+c)(a’+c))
=(a’+b+c)(a’+b+c’)(a’+b’+c)(a’+b’+c’)(a+b’+c)(a’+b’+c)
= (a’+b+c)(a’+b+c’)(a’+b’+c)(a’+b’+c’)(a+b’+c)
Transforming one form to another
• Double complement the given function and apply De Morgan’s theorem.
Converting to Gate Level Realization (s-
Converting to Gate Level Realization (p-