Sensors and actuators-

Transducers
 sensor
• A sensor is a device which can quantitatively
measure a certain physical quantity.
Here are a few examples of the many different types
of sensors:

– In a mercury-based glass thermometer, the input

is temperature. The liquid contained expands and
contracts in response, causing the level to be
higher or lower on the marked gauge, which is
human-readable.
Motion sensors in various systems including
home security lights, automatic doors and
bathroom fixtures typically send out some type
of energy, such as microwaves, ultrasonic waves
or light beams and detect when the flow of
energy is interrupted by something entering its
path.
A photo sensor detects the presence of visible
light, infrared transmission (IR), and/or
ultraviolet (UV) energy.
 Actuator
An electric actuator is a device that can create
movement of a load, or an action requiring a
force such as clamping, using an electric motor
to create the necessary force. How does an
electric actuator work? An electric motor will
create rotary motion as the spindle, or rotor,
rotates.
 Actuator examples
• Relay
• Indicaors
• Speaker
• Motor-(liner or rotary)
Examples: liner actuators -Solenoids
motor
s
Indicators, relays & magnetic
contactors
 Transducer
Any device which is able convert one form of
energy into another form is called as a
transducer.
Dynamic Moving-coil Microphone Sound
Transducer
The Microphone Input Transducer
• The Microphone, also called a “mic”, is a sound
transducer that can be classed as a “sound
sensor”. This is because it produces an
electrical analogue output signal which is
proportional to
the “acoustic” sound wave acting upon its
flexible diaphragm. This signal is an “electrical
image” representing the characteristics of the
acoustic waveform. Generally, the output signal
from a microphone is an analogue signal either
in the form of a voltage or current which is
proportional to the actual sound wave.
The Loudspeaker Output Transducer
The Moving Coil Loudspeaker
Common types of Sensors
 Quantity being Input Device Output Device
Common Sensors and Measured (Sensor) (Actuator)
Transducers
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Photodiode Lights & Lamps
Light Level Photo- LED’s & Displays
transistor Solar Fibre Optics
Cell

Thermocouple
Thermistor Heater
Temperature Thermostat Fan
Resistive Temperature
Detectors

Strain Gauge Lifts & Jacks

Force/Pressure Pressure Switch Electromagnet
Load Cells Vibration

Potentiomete
r Encoders Motor
Position Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch Solenoid
LVDT(linear variable differential Panel Meters
transformer)

Tacho-generator AC and DC Motors

Speed Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler Stepper Motor
Doppler Effect Sensors Brake

Bell
Carbon Microphone Buzzer
Sound Piezo-electric Loudspeaker
Crystal
 Temperature senor
• The most commonly used type of all the
sensors are those which detect Temperature
or heat.
• Temperature Sensors measure the amount of
heat energy or even coldness that is
generated by an object or system, allowing us
to “sense” or detect any physical change to
that temperature producing either an
analogue or digital output.
There are many different types of Temperature Sensor
available

• Contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of

temperature sensor are required to be in physical
contact with the object being sensed and use
conduction to monitor changes in temperature. They
can be used to detect solids, liquids or gases over a
wide range of temperatures.
• Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types
of temperature sensor use convection and radiation to
monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to
detect liquids and gases that emit radiant energy as
heat rises and cold settles to the bottom in convection
currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted
from an object in the form of infra-red radiation .
 The Thermostat
• The Thermostat is a contact type electro-
mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that
basically consists of two different metals such as
nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc, that
are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip.
• The different linear expansion rates of the two
dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending
movement when the strip is subjected to heat.
• The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical
switch or as a mechanical way of operating an
electrical switch in thermostatic controls and are
used extensively to control hot water heating
elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water storage
tanks as well as in vehicle radiator cooling systems.
The Bi-metallic Thermostat
Vehicle thermostat
 The Thermistor
• A thermistor is a special type of resistor which
changes its physical resistance when exposed
to changes in temperature.

Their main advantage is their speed of

response to any changes in temperature,
accuracy and repeatability.
• Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative
Temperature Coefficient of resistance or
(NTC), that is their resistance value goes
DOWN with an increase in the temperature.
• Of course there are some which have a
Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that
their resistance value goes UP with an
increase in temperature.
• Thermistors are passive resistive devices
which means we need to pass a current
through it to produce a measurable voltage
output.
Temperature Sensors Example
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).

Resistive temperature detectors have positive

temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike the
thermistor their output is extremely linear producing
very accurate measurements of temperature.

However, they have very poor thermal sensitivity, that is a

change in temperature only produces a very small output
change for example, 1Ω/oC.
• we need to pass a current through them and
monitor the resulting voltage. However, any
variation in resistance due to self heat of the
resistive wires as the current flows through it,
I2R , (Ohms Law) causes an error in the
readings. To avoid this, the RTD is usually
connected into a Whetstone Bridge network
which has additional connecting wires for
lead-compensation and/or connection to a
constant current source.
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature
devices with an output voltage linearly-proportional to the
Centigrade temperature. ... The LM35 device is rated to operate
over a −55°C to 150°C temperature range, while the LM35C
device is rated for a −40°C to 110°C range (−10° with
improved accuracy).
LM35 temperature measuring device having an analog output
voltage proportional to the temperature. It provides output
voltage in Centigrade (Celsius).
LM35- from Data sheet
 The Thermocouple
• Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that
basically consists of two junctions of dissimilar metals.
• such as copper and constantan that are welded
or crimped together.
• One junction is kept at a constant temperature called
the reference (Cold) junction.
• while the other the measuring (Hot) junction.
• When the two junctions are at different temperatures,
a voltage is developed across the junction which is
used to measure the temperature sensor as shown
below.
• The operating principal of a thermocouple is very
simple and basic.
• When fused together the junction of the two
dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan
produces a “thermo-electric” effect which gives
a constant potential difference of only a few
millivolts (mV) between them.
• The voltage difference between the two junctions
is called the “Seebeck effect” as a temperature
gradient is generated along the conducting wires
producing an emf.
• Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a
function of the temperature changes.
• Thermocouples can be made from a variety of
different materials enabling extreme
temperatures of between -200 C to over
+2000 C to be measured.
• With such a large choice of materials and
temperature range, internationally recognized
standards have been developed complete
with thermocouple colour codes to allow the
user to choose the correct thermocouple
sensor for a particular application.
• Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals
that are changing smoothly and continuously
over time. These signals tend to be very small in
value from a few mico-volts (uV) to several milli-
volts (mV), so some form of amplification is
required.

• Then circuits which measure analogue signals

usually have a slow response and/or low
accuracy. Also analogue signals can be easily
converted into digital type signals for use in
micro-controller systems by the use of analogue-
to-digital converters, or ADC’s.
 Light Sensors
• The Light Dependent Resistor
This basic light sensor circuit is of a relay output light activated switch. A
potential divider circuit is formed between the photoresistor, LDR and the
resistor R1. When no light is present ie in darkness, the resistance of the LDR is
very high in the Megaohms (MΩ’s) range so zero base bias is applied to the
transistor TR1 and the relay is de-energised or “OFF”.
The Photodiode.
• When used as a light sensor, a photodiodes dark
current (0 lux) is about 10uA for geranium and 1uA for
silicon type diodes. When light falls upon the junction
more hole/electron pairs are formed and the leakage
current increases. This leakage current increases as the
illumination of the junction increases.
• Thus, the photodiodes current is directly proportional
to light intensity falling onto the PN-junction.
• One main advantage of photodiodes when used as
light sensors is their fast response to changes in the
light levels, but one disadvantage of this type of photo
device is the relatively small current flow even when
fully lit.
The Phototransistor
• Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar
NPN Transistor with its large base region
electrically unconnected.
• although some phototransistors allow a
base connection to control the sensitivity, and
which uses photons of light to generate a
base current which in turn causes a collector
to emitter current to flow.
• Most phototransistors are NPN types whose
outer casing is either transparent or has a
clear lens to focus the light onto the base
junction for increased sensitivity.
In our simple example above, the speed of the
rotating shaft is measured by using a digital
LED/Opto-detector sensor. The disc which is
fixed to a rotating shaft (for example, from a
motor or robot wheels), has a number of
transparent slots within its design. As the disc
rotates with the speed of the shaft, each slot
passes by the sensor in turn producing an
output pulse representing a logic “1” or logic
“0” level.
 Position Sensors
As their name implies, Position Sensors detect the position of
something which means that they are referenced either to or
from some fixed point or position. These types of sensors
provide a “positional” feedback.

One method of determining a position, is to use either

“distance”, which could be the distance between two points
such as the distance travelled or moved away from some fixed
point, or by “rotation” (angular movement). For example, the
rotation of a robots wheel to determine its distance travelled
along the ground. Either way, Position Sensors can detect the
movement of an object in a straight line using Linear Sensors
or by its angular movement using Rotational Sensors.
 The Potentiometer
The most commonly used of all the “Position Sensors”, is the
potentiometer because it is an inexpensive and easy to use
position sensor. It has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical
shaft that can be either angular (rotational) or linear (slider type)
in its movement, and which causes the resistance value between
the wiper/slider and the two end connections to change giving
an electrical signal output that has a proportional relationship
between the actual wiper position on the resistive track and its
resistance value. In other words, resistance is proportional to
position.
The output signal (Vout) from the potentiometer is taken from
the centre wiper connection as it moves along the resistive
track, and is proportional to the angular position of the shaft.
Example:
 Proximity sensors
• Inductive proximity sensor
 Capacitive proximity sensors
• Capacitive proximity sensors are similar to
inductive proximity sensors. The main
difference between the two types is that
capacitive proximity sensors produce an
electrostatic field instead of an
electromagnetic field. Capacitive proximity
switches will sense metal as well a nonmetallic
materials such as paper, glass, liquids, and
cloth.
• When an object nears the sensing surface it
enters the electrostatic field of the electrodes
and changes the capacitance in an oscillator
circuit.
• As a result, the oscillator begins oscillating.
• The trigger circuit reads the oscillator’s
amplitude and when it reaches a specific level
the output state of the sensor changes.
• As the target moves away from the sensor the
oscillator’s amplitude decreases, switching
the sensor output back to its original state.
 Instrumentation Amplifier
• Need of Instrumentation Amplifier
In order to generate quality products, accurate
measurement of a physical quantity. Such as
temperature,
pressure and
humidity
is the requirement of industrial and control system.
However, the transducer generates low-level signals. As
these signals do not have the capability to control the
other stage of the system. Thus, it is necessary to perform
the amplification of such signals.
Also when we talk about long distance signal
transmission, then these signals get highly
distorted due to noise and atmospheric
disturbances.

A normal signal amplifier is not that much suited

here. In order to remove noise effects,
amplification unit must have a high value of
common mode rejection ratio. This is achieved
through an instrumentation amplifier.
 Instrumentation Amplifier Circuit
Design
A 3 op-amp circuit of instrumentation amplifier
gives high input impedance in order to have a
proper signal measurement from the transducer.

The figure below shows the circuit of a 3 op-amp

instrumentation amplifier:
• The first stage is nothing but a voltage follower
and the second stage is a difference amplifier.

• The voltage follower unit consists of 2 buffer

amplifier, having high input impedance.

Let us first derive the condition for stage 1:

At the input of the above circuit the current flowing

can be represented as:
Advantages of Instrumentation amplifier
• It provides high CMMR.
• Instrumentation amplifier has high input and low
output impedance.
• It consumes less power.
Disadvantages of Instrumentation amplifier
• As we know that the device performs
amplification of low-level signals that has to be
transmitted over long distance. But sometimes
originally transmitted signal gets highly distorted
due to noise effect because of long distance.
 Applications of Instrumentation
Amplifier
An instrumentation amplifier can be used both
as a temperature controller as well as a
temperature indicator. Such amplifiers are used
to show variation in the output with the
corresponding variation in the temperature.

It also finds applications, in analog weight

scaling and light intensity meter. It is also used in
controlling current and voltage.