Semiconductor

memories & Data

storageDevices
 Semiconductor Memory
Semiconductor memory is used in any
electronics assembly that uses computer
processing technology.
In addition to this, memory cards have become
commonplace items for temporarily storing data
- everything from the portable flash memory
cards used for transferring files, to
semiconductor memory cards used in cameras,
mobile phones.
Memory cell

Bit
line
While logic chips work as the “brains” of an
electronic device, performing functions using
mathematical operations, memory chips store data.
The basic building block of a memory chip is a cell,
a tiny circuit with a capacitor (which stores data as a
charge) and one or more transistors (which activate
data).
The capacitor is either charged or discharged,
corresponding to the two possible data values
(“1”
or “0”), where this smallest unit of data is known
as a “bit”.
The cells are arranged in a row and have a bit line
structure that connects into a memory “address” called
a word line.
The address provides a means of identifying a location for
data storage, and the word line forms an electrical path
allowing all the memory cells on that row to be activated
at the same time for storage (“write”) or retrieval
(“read”).
Data access is initiated with electrical signals – a row
address strobe (RAS) and a column address strobe (CAS) –
that together pinpoint a cell’s location within an array.
If a charge is stored in the selected cell’s capacitor,
these signals cause the transistor to conduct,
transferring the charge to the connected bit line,
causing a slight voltage increase that reads as a “1”.
As we can see that the block diagram consists of a
row and a column address decoder along with
memory array and I/O buffer. These buffers hold
the data for a certain period of time.

The total number of address lines i.e., n is divided

into q and r and are separately provided as input to
row and a column decoder. The output from these
two decoders forms a matrix array having size 2q ×
2r having 2n crossing points.
These crossing points are referred to as memory
cells. And each memory cell holds the ability to
store one-bit of binary data. So, whenever the
processor sends an address to the memory IC then
the row and column decoder accordingly select one
line, which correspondingly selects a memory cell
from the matrix.

In this way, the memory cells are selected by the

address sent by the processor. Further, the data can
be read or written in a particular selected memory
cell according to the generated control signal.
 Type
s
A variety of different memory technologies are
available - each one suited to different
applications.. Names such as ROM, RAM,
EPROM, EEPROM, Flash memory, DRAM, SRAM,
SDRAM, as well as F-RAM and MRAM are
available, and new types are being developed to
enable improved performance.
 Volatile Memory
Volatile memories are those memories that
store the data temporarily. More specifically we
can say that data is stored in volatile memory
only till the duration power supply to the IC is
ON. And once the supply gets OFF then the
stored data gets lost.
RAM: RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is
a volatile memory that means the data is stored
temporarily until the power supply is ON. This
memory is used for short term storage of data. At
the time of read operation, RAM exhibits non-
destructive nature.
This means that while reading, the data present in
the memory location will not be destroyed. But
writing data in a memory location where some data
is already present will destroy the previously stored
data. Or we can say that the newly entered data will
replace the previous data
RAM is majorly classified into two categories:

SRAM: It is an abbreviation for Static Random

Access Memory. SRAM has an array of flip-flops
that are used to store the data. The memory cells
consist of flip flops that hold the data until the
power supply is on.
DRAM: It is an acronym for Dynamic Random
Access Memory. It is also a read/write memory that
stores the data in the form of charges in the
capacitor and transistor pair present in the memory
cell.
 Non-Volatile Memory
ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. It is a
memory array that is permanently programmed
by the manufacturer or programmer only once.
Hence its data cannot be changed by the
processor once it is programmed.

Thus the processor can only read the data

present in this memory hence called read-only
memory or fixed memory.
The process of loading the data in the ROM is
known as programming. The way in which ROM is
programmed further classifies it.

• Custom programmed ROM (ROM): These

memories are programmed by the manufacturer
at the time of its fabrication. Hence is stored
permanently.
• Programmable ROM (PROM): PROM’s are
programmed by the user but these offers re-
programmability after erasing previously loaded
contents. There exist two methods by which
the contents of the ROM are erased.
EPROM: It stands Erasable Programmable Read-
Only Memory. The EPROM offers re-
programming, by erasing the previously stored
data by making use of ultraviolet rays.

Basically, the electrons in the isolated gate of

MOS transistor of memory cells get removed
when irradiated with ultraviolet rays. Thereby
allowing removal of stored data in the memory
cell through the control gate.
EEPROM: It is an abbreviation used for
electrically erasable programmable read-only
memory. Initially, the data in E2PROM is erased
by applying external voltage at the erase pin of
the chip. But this somewhat increases the
complexity of the overall system.
 Storage Devices
What is a storage device?
Storage devices are the computer hardware
used to remember/store data.
There are many types of storage devices, each
with their own benefits and drawbacks.
 examples
• Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
• Solid State Drive
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• CD, DVD and Blu-Ray Discs
• DVD-RAM
• ROM
• USB Flash Memory
 Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
Hard disk drives are non-volatile magnetic storage devices
capable of remembering vast amounts of data.
An electromagnet in the read/write head charges the disk’s
surface with either a positive or negative charge, this is
how binary 1 or 0 is represented.
The read/write head is then capable of detecting the
magnetic
charges left on the disk’s surface, this is how data is read.
 HDD cnt..
The disk surface is divided into concentric circles
(tracks) and sectors (wedges). Dividing the surface
in this way provides physical addresses to
remember where data is saved.

A circuit board carefully co-ordinates the rotating

disk and swinging actuator arm to allow the
read/write head to access any location very quickly.

Typical HDD capacities are measured in Terabytes

(TB).
Typical applications for hard disk drives
• Desktop computers
• Laptop computers
• TV and satellite recorders
• Servers and mainframes
• Portable (external) drives are sometimes used
to backup home computers or transfer large
files
 Solid State Drive (SSD)
Solid state drives are non-volatile storage devices capable of
holding large amounts of data.
They use NAND flash memories (millions of transistors wired in a
series on a circuit board), giving them the advantage of having
no mechanical moving parts and therefore immediate access to
the data.

NAND Flash is a
type of non-
volatile storage
technology that
does not
require power
to retain data.
 SSD cnt..
Solid state drives perform faster then traditional hard disk drives, however
they are significantly more expensive.

This expense means that typical capacities are usually measured in Gigabytes
(GB).

They can be installed inside a computer or purchased in a portable (external)

format.

An SSD as the primary drive for your important programs and operating
system, and a traditional HDD to store music, documents and pictures (which
don’t need the faster access times).

The lack of moving parts in an SSD makes it very robust and reliable, ideal for
a portable device.
 Typical applications for solid state
drives
• Smartphones
• Tablet computers
• High-end laptops
• Two drive desktop solutions
• Portable drives are sometimes used in HD
video cameras
Benefits of solid state drives
• Extremely fast read/write speeds
• Small in physical size and very light, ideal for portable
devices
• No moving parts to wear, fail or get damaged – ideal for
making portable computers and devices more reliable and
durable
• Uses less power than a HDD, increasing battery life time
• Very quiet
• Generates less heat

Drawbacks of solid state drives

• Expensive to buy (per GB)
• Limited in capacity due to the expense
• Limited amount of writes
 CD, DVD and Blu-Ray Discs
What are optical storage discs?
CD, DVD and Blu-Ray drives are optical storage devices.
Binary data is stored as changes to the texture of the
disc’s surface, sometimes thought of as microscopic
pits and bumps.
These ‘bumps’ are located on a continuous spiral
track, starting at the center of the disc.
Whilst the disc is rotating at a constant speed, a laser is
pointed at the spiral track of ‘bumps’.
The laser will reflect/bounce off the disc surface in
different directions depending upon whether a 1 or 0 has
been read.
Working of optical storage discs
 DVD
Despite being the same physical size, a DVD can
hold more data than a CD.
To achieve this, a more tightly packed spiral
track is used to store the data on the disc.
To accurately access the smaller ‘bumps’, a
finer red laser is used in a DVD drive than that
found in a standard CD drive.
To increase capacity further, DVDs are also
capable of dual layering.
 Blu-Ray
Blu-Ray technology squashes even more data
into the same size disc as a CD or DVD.
The spiral data tracks on a Blu-Ray disc are so
small a special blue (violet) laser has to be used
to read the ‘bumps’.
Like a DVD, Blu-Ray discs are capable of storing
data on multiple layers.
 USB Flash Memory
Flash are non-volatile solid state storage devices which use
NAND flash memories to store data (millions of transistors).

USB refers to the USB connection that allows users to plug the
device into the USB port of a computer.

Other types of flash storage include the memory cards used in

digital cameras.

Flash memory comes in a variety of capacities to suit most

budgets and requirements.
Typical applications for flash memory
• USB memory sticks – saving and transferring documents etc
• Memory cards in digital cameras

Benefits of flash memory

• Portable, small and lightweight
• Durability, flash has no moving parts to damage
• Range of capacities available
• Fast speeds, with no moving parts of boot up time

Drawbacks of flash memory

• Limited (but huge) number of write cycles possible
• Really high capacities are uncommon
• In relative terms, an expensive storage option compared to a HDD