Ethics

Lloyd Ryan Lagmay, RPm

Meeting link:

https://meet.google.com/nhc-kazc-kpz

Let us allot a few minutes for the others to catch up

and join

Agenda today: discussion on lesson 4 and 5

Course Overview
What is this course all about?
This course establishes a foundation for
ethical thinking through a survey of
classical and contemporary traditions in
moral philosophy. It provides insights on
questions of meta-ethics (i.e. on what is
the character of “good” and our “moral
discourse”?) and normative ethics (i.e.
what we ought to do?) that will help
students formulate reasonable ethical
judgments supported by sound
arguments which develops overall their
moral compass.
Why should you take this course?

 The course will include discussions that

revolve around real life concerns that
would allow the human agent to
acquire a richer perspective on matters
that affect us and develop a deeper
insight into the nature of being human.
 it provides you the significant soft skills
or life skills such as interpersonal and
communication skills, empathy,
decision making and problem solving
skills, greater resilience in coping with
emotions, expressing ones creativity,
and the critical thinking skills that you
as a person will carry not only in the
workplace but rather "life" in general.
What this Ethics course is not…

 this is not values education

 this is not catechism
 this is not moral theology
 this is not a rulebook or instruction manual
 this is not applied ethics (yet)

What this Ethics course is about…

 good and bad

 right and wrong
 obeying rules
 pursuing ideals
 developing character
Lesson 1: Introduction to
Philosophy
1. What is philosophy?
2. Branches of Philosophy
 In loose contexts, philosophy is
understood as a belief system, an
organization of ideas that gives sense or
framework to your life.
 Philosophy is derived from the words
“philia” which means “love of” and
“Sophia”, meaning, wisdom.
 Pythagoras, an ancient Greek
philosopher and mathematician, who is
believed to have coined the term
"philosopher" to distinguish those who
sought knowledge for its own sake from
those who sought it for practical
purposes.
 We now define philosophy as the study
of the fundamental nature of
knowledge, reality, and existence,
values, reason, mind, and language.
Such questions are often posed as
problems to be studied or resolved.
Branches of Philosophy

1. Metaphysics: The study of the nature of

reality, existence, and the fundamental
nature of being. It explores questions
such as "What is the nature of reality?"
and "What is the relationship between
mind and body?“
2. Epistemology: The study of knowledge
and belief. It investigates the nature,
scope, and limits of knowledge, asking
questions like "What is knowledge?" and
"How do we know what we know?
3. Logic: The study of reasoning and
argumentation. It focuses on the
principles of valid inference and correct
reasoning, asking questions like "What
constitutes a valid argument?" and "How
can we distinguish between good and
bad reasoning?
4. Aesthetics: The study of beauty, art, and
taste. It explores questions about the nature of
artistic expression, beauty, and aesthetic
experience, such as "What is art?" and "What
makes something beautiful?“
5. Philosophy of Mind: The study of the nature
of the mind, consciousness, and mental states.
It explores questions such as "What is
consciousness?" and "How do mental states
relate to the physical body?“
6. Philosophy of Religion: The study of
religious beliefs, practices, and the nature of
the divine. It explores questions about the
existence of God, the problem of evil, and the
relationship between faith and reason.
7. Political Philosophy: explores questions about
government, political institutions, justice, liberty,
rights, and the enforcement of a legal code by
authority. It seeks to establish the best possible
political arrangements and examines the ethical
foundations of political practices and
institutions.

8. Ethics: The study of morality and moral

values. It examines what is right and wrong,
good and bad, and explores questions like "What
is the good life?" and "What are our moral
obligations?"
 What do you think is the relationship between Ethics and
the other branches of Philosophy? Do you think they are
inter-related?
Lesson 2: Introduction to
Ethics
Lesson Overview
1. Definition of Ethics
2. Definition of Morality
3. Values
1. Definition

2. Characteristics

3. Types

4. Who is a "good person"?

5. Fields of ethics
1. Descriptive ethics

2. Metaethics

3. Normative ethics

4. Applied Ethics
What is ethics?

•Derived from the Greek word “ethos”,

which means “characteristic way of
living”, ethics is a branch of philosophy
that is concerned with human conduct,
more specifically the behavior of
individuals in society.
•Ethics examines the rational
justification for our moral judgments; it
studies what is morally right or wrong,
just or unjust
•Ina broader sense, ethics reflects on
human beings and their interaction with
nature and with other humans, on freedom,
on responsibility and on justice.

•Ethics is also called moral philosophy,

the discipline concerned with what
is morally good and bad and morally right
and wrong. The term is also applied to any
system or theory of moral values or
principles.
 What is Morality?
 Morality refers to the principles
and standards that individuals
or societies use to distinguish
between right and wrong, good
and bad behavior.
 It encompasses beliefs,
practices, and values that guide
how people should act and
interact with others. Morality
often includes concepts such as
justice, fairness, and rights, and
is influenced by cultural,
religious, philosophical, and
social factors
 Values
 Values are fundamental beliefs or standards that
guide the way individuals and groups behave and
make decisions.
 Characteristics:
1. They represent what is important to us and shape
our actions, attitudes, and priorities.
2. They are fundamental beliefs or standards that
guide the way individuals and groups behave and
make decisions.
3. They represent what is important to us and shape
our actions, attitudes, and priorities.
 Types of Values
1. Personal Values - individual beliefs that guide
personal behavior and choices (honesty, integrity,
kindness, and responsibility)
2. Cultural Values - shared beliefs within a cultural
group that influence collective behavior and social
norms. (respect for elders, community solidarity,
and traditions)
3. Moral Values - principles of right and wrong (justice,
fairness, compassion, and altruism.)
4. Social Values - important to society as a whole and
shape social interactions and policies. (include
equality, freedom, and social justice)
5. Spiritual and Religious Values - derived from
religious or spiritual beliefs (faith, devotion)
 What / who is a “Good Person”?
A "good person" can be understood in both subjective and
objective terms, with perspectives varying depending on
cultural, philosophical, and individual beliefs
Subjective Description
(1) Personal Values: A good person aligns their actions with
their personal values, which might include honesty,
kindness, and loyalty.
(2) Cultural Norms: Different cultures have varying standards
for what constitutes a good person. For example, in some
cultures, filial piety (respect for one's parents) is a key
virtue.
(3) Intentions: The intentions behind a person's actions play a
crucial role. A person who aims to help others and
contribute positively to their community is often considered
good.
 Objective Description
 Certain principles are often considered universally
good, such as honesty, integrity, and respect for
others. A person who upholds universal values are
generally understood as a good person
 Common Traits of a Good Person
(1) Empathy: They understand and share the feelings of
others.
(2) Integrity: They adhere to moral and ethical
principles consistently.
(3) Altruism: They prioritize the well-being of others and
act selflessly.
(4) Respectfulness: They treat others with consideration
and honor their dignity.
(5) Responsibility: They take accountability for their
actions and their impact on others
Fields in ethics:

1. Descriptive ethics aims to

describe the moral standard of a
society. For instance, in the
Philippine context, it addresses
question on “what is the common
moral standard for the Filipinos?”
or, “what are the Filipino values?”

2. Metaethics deals with the inquiry

on the sources or foundation
morality. In this field, scholars are
debating on whether morality is
grounded on God, culture, personal
taste, or reason. The question can
also be posed in terms of searching
for the origin of the moral standards.
Meta-Ethical Views

 Moral realism: the view that there are

knowable and objective moral truths

 Moral skepticism is a class of meta-ethical

theories all members of which entail that no
one has any moral knowledge. Many moral
skeptics also make the stronger, modal claim
that moral knowledge is impossible.

 Moral Nihilism: a philosophical position that

denies the existence of objective moral values
and moral facts. It argues that there are no
inherent or objective moral truths that
universally apply to all individuals or cultures.
3. Normative ethics (also known as moral
theory) aims to address the question on
“what is the right action?” It does not search
on the what is the ground of morality but
articulates the question in terms of “ought”
or “should”. It emphasizes the necessary
prescription on any course of action we must
undertake to be moral agents.

Normative ethics is the study of what makes

actions right and wrong. It is concerned with
whether it is correct to hold such a belief

Normative ethics involves arriving at moral

standards that regulate right and wrong
conduct. ... The Golden Rule is a
classic example of a normative principle: We
should do to others what we would want
others to do to us
4. Applied ethics is a discipline of
philosophy that attempts to apply
ethical theory to real-life situations.
applied ethics focuses on specific cases
and the ethical implications of particular
actions, policies, technologies, or
practices. It involves the examination of
moral dilemmas and the development
of ethical frameworks to guide decision-
making in various fields.

The discipline has many specialized

fields, such as engineering ethics,
bioethics, geoethics, public service
ethics and business ethics.
Lesson 3: The Moral
Agent
Lesson Overview

1. Moral Experience
2. Moral Agent
3. Moral Agency
4. Moral Courage
5. Universal and Non-Moral Standards
Moral experience
 Moral experience - Is any encounter
wherein in a person understands that
the values he or she believes to be
important are either realized or
thwarted
 Moral experience happens even in
mundane everyday settings wherein
you take action based on your moral
standards.

For example, you have a moral

experience when you decide to give a
poor person some money because you
feel that it is the right thing to do.
Moral agent
• A moral agent is a being who is
conscious of the concepts of
right and wrong.
• For example, a grade 3 student
who copies from his classmate
during an exam can already be
held accountable for his actions
because he knows what is right
and wrong. (thus very young
children and most of those with
mental disability may not be
considered as a moral agent)
• We have a moral responsibility
to NOT hurt others
Moral Agency
• Moral agency is the ability to
make ethical decisions based
on what is right or wrong and
can be held accountable for
their actions.

• This capacity can be found in

individuals or collective entities
like businesses or health care
institutions.
Moral Courage

This refers to the ability of an

individual to stand up for their
ethical or moral principles and
values, even in the face of
opposition, criticism, or personal
risk. It involves the willingness to do
what is right, just, or fair, regardless
of the potential challenges or
consequences which may include
backlash, social isolation,
professional repercussions, or even
physical harm. Despite these risks,
individuals with moral courage
prioritize doing what is right.
• Moral courage is often fueled by
empathy and compassion for
others who may be affected by
injustice or unethical practices.

Examples:
(1) Exposing corruption, fraud, or
unethical practices within an
organization, even when it
may lead to personal and
professional consequences
(2) Activists who work to address
issues such as environmental
conservation, gender equality etc.
Moral Standards

1. Universal Moral Standards

2. Non –Moral Standards

Universal Moral Standards suggest that

ethical principles or norms that are
applicable to all individuals and
cultures, regardless of their specific
beliefs, customs, or traditions. They
are usually derived from reason. The
right to live, liberty, and security,
are considered fundamental and
applicable to all individuals.
Non-moral Standards - are also guides
for behavior of members of a group
but are typically concerned with
aspects other than what is morally
right or wrong.

(1) Norms - are social expectations or

rules that guide and regulate
behavior within a particular group or
society
(2) Etiquette - refers to the set of
socially accepted and expected
behaviors, manners, and customs
within a specific culture, society, or
social group. It provides guidelines
for appropriate conduct in various
social situations,
(3) Rules and Policies - Specific
guidelines or instructions that dictate
how something should be done in an
institution but do not necessarily carry
moral weight. For example, dress code
policy and wearing of IDs at work or
school.

(4) Commandment - Authoritative

directives often found in religious
contexts. They serve as fundamental
principles for followers to live by. Some
religious organizations command
fasting on certain days which may
have no moral harm to others
Lesson 4: Human Acts and
Acts of Man
Lesson Overview
1. What are human acts?
2. What are acts of man?
3. Elements of human acts
4. Conscience
5. Modifiers of human acts
 Human acts are actions performed
by a person who has full knowledge
through free will. Human acts are
grounded in the very nature of a
person that he or she is intelligent
and free. In other words, they refer
to actions that are deliberately
chosen, consciously performed, and
involve moral responsibility. These
actions are the result of an
individual's free will and rational
deliberation.
 Act of man is one that is not
dependent upon intellect and free
will. It is done by a human person
but is not proper to him as a person
but it does stem from those faculties
which are peculiar to man, namely
intellect and free will. These occur
instinctively, involuntarily, or
without conscious deliberation.
These actions may be driven by
natural instincts, reflexes, or
external forces. In plain language,
an act of man is essentially an
animal act.
ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACTS:

1. Knowledge- it is employed in doing

human act. This is to say that when the
doer is conscious of his or her actions, his
or her senses are active, and he or she is
aware of the reason and the
consequences of his or her actions.

2. Freedom-when the doer acts through his

or her own initiative and choice without
being forced by another person or
situation, then the act is done on the
basis of freedom.

3. Voluntariness-the act is done willfully

when the doer consents to the act,
accepting it as his or his own, and assume
the accountability for its consequences.
Conscience is often viewed as an internal
moral guide that shapes and evaluates
one's actions.

Types of Conscience :
Based on knowledge of right and wrong:

1. Correct/ true conscience – judges

what’s good as good and what is evil
as evil.
2. False/ erroneous conscience –
incorrectly judges what is good as evil
or vice versa. (an individual's judgment
about what is morally right or wrong is
flawed, incorrect, or mistaken.)
3. Scrupulous conscience – meticulous, afraid of
committing evil. It refers to a state in which an
individual experiences excessive, unwarranted, or
exaggerated feelings of guilt, anxiety, or fear about
the moral rightness or wrongness of certain actions
4. Lax conscience – a lack of moral sensitivity,
diligence, or strictness in evaluating the rightness or
wrongness of certain actions. A person rushes and is
quick in justifying its self.
Based on ethical decision making
1. Certain conscience – implies certainty in one’s
decision. reflects a high degree of conviction and
certainty in the moral judgment made by an
individual. (“malinis ang kunsensya ko)
2. Doubtful conscience – uncertain in decision-
making. individuals may experience doubt or
hesitation when faced with complex moral
dilemmas or situations where it is challenging to
determine the morally appropriate course of action.
Modifiers of Human Acts

• There are circumstances where

human acts may be modified and
be deemed as acts of man.
• They are the things that may
affects the human act’s essential
qualities and thus lessen the
moral character of the human act.
• These are the factors that
diminish the responsibility of the
agent.
1. Ignorance- pertains to lack, want, or
absence of necessary knowledge in a
person capable of such.
Vincible - doing wrong when one ought to have known
better (avoidable such as smoking and littering)
Invincible - is doing something wrong when one could not
have known better (for example due to lack of
education or misunderstanding due to language
barrier)

2. Passion or Concupiscence - defined as a

compelling desire for something. It can
also refer to a person's sexual desire or
lust
3. Fear-defined as a feeling induced by
perceived danger or threat.
4. Violence-a physical force exerted on a
person by another free agent for the
purpose of compelling the said person
to act against his or her will.

5. Habits- are inclination to perform specific

acts acquired by repetition, and
characterized by decreased power of
resistance and increased facility of
performance. Habit does not destroy
voluntariness, and acts from habit are
always voluntary, at least in cause, as
long as the habit is allowed to endure.
Lesson 5: Moral Dilemma

Concepts to be discussed in
this lesson:

1. What is dilemma
2. What is moral dilemma?
Levels of moral dilemma
Characteristics of moral dilemma
Introduction:

 Dilemma - a situation in which a difficult choice has to be

made between two or more alternatives, especially
equally undesirable ones.
Dictionary Definitions of dilemma:
• Cambridge Dictionary: “a situation in which a choice has
to be made between possibilities that will al have results
you do not want”
• Oxford Dictionary: “a situation in which a difficult choice
has to be made between two or more alternatives,
especially ones that are
equally undesirable.”
 Ethical dilemmas, also called ethical
paradoxes or moral dilemmas, are situations
in which an agent stands under two (or more)
conflicting moral requirements, none of which
overrides the other. In other words, an agent
is confused about the right decision to make
because there are several competing values
that are seemingly equally important and
urgent.
The following are usually present when an
individual is experiencing a moral dilemma:

1. Conflict of Values: A moral dilemma typically

involves a conflict between two or more
values or ethical principles. For example,
honesty vs. kindness or justice vs. mercy.
2. No Clear Right Answer: In a moral dilemma,
there is often no clear "right" answer. Each
possible action has its own set of ethical
justifications and potential consequences.
3. Significant Consequences: The choices
involved in a moral dilemma usually have
significant consequences, impacting not
only the individual making the decision but
also others involved
Levels of moral dilemma
1. Personal Moral
Dilemmas
2. Interpersonal Moral
Dilemmas
3. Organizational or
Professional Moral
Dilemmas
4. Societal Moral
Dilemmas
5. Global Moral Dilemmas
Discussion:

Personal Moral Dilemmas: These

dilemmas involve decisions that
individuals face in their everyday
lives. They often revolve around
issues such as honesty, loyalty, and
personal integrity. For example,
deciding whether to tell the truth
about a mistake at work even if it
may result in negative
consequences is a personal moral
dilemma.
Interpersonal Moral Dilemmas: These
dilemmas involve conflicts between
individuals or within relationships. They
may include issues like trust, loyalty,
and fairness. For instance, choosing
between supporting a friend in a
dispute even if you think they are
wrong or siding with the opposing party
can be an interpersonal moral dilemma.

Organizational or Professional Moral

Dilemmas: These dilemmas occur within
the context of one's job or organization.
They often involve ethical issues related
to workplace practices, such as
whistleblowing, conflicts of interest, or
ethical violations within the
organization.
Societal Moral Dilemmas: These dilemmas pertain
to broader societal issues and often involve
complex ethical, social, and political
considerations. Topics like abortion, euthanasia,
capital punishment, and environmental ethics fall
into this category. Resolving societal moral
dilemmas often requires considering the greater
good and the impact of decisions on a large scale.

Global Moral Dilemmas: These dilemmas transcend

national boundaries and involve moral
considerations on a global scale. Issues like climate
change, international conflicts, humanitarian
crises, and global health crises (e.g., distributing
vaccines during a pandemic) are examples of
global moral dilemmas. Resolving these dilemmas
often requires cooperation among nations and
addressing issues that affect humanity as a whole.
Some examples for classroom discussion

Jeff had several friends including Roger and Daniel. Roger

has recently met and started dating a wonderful lady
named Miya. He is convinced this is a long term
relationship. Unknown to Roger, Jeff observed them at a
restaurant several days ago and realized Miya is the wife of
his other friend Daniel. What should Jeff do in this ethical
dilemma?
 Shall he tell Roger that Miya is married? Daniel calls Jeff
as he suspects his wife is having an affair. Shall he tell
Daniel? Shall he keep silent?
 No matter who he tells, he knows that it is going to end
up hurting one, if not both friends.
2. You are part of a group of people
are enjoying an outdoor adventure
together. One person gets stuck in
the only way in or out of the cave.
Water starts rising in the cave due
to high tide or heavy rainfall.
Everyone will perish if the person
isn’t removed from the entrance,
but he will die if he is removed
from the entrance. What is the
most appropriate decision?.
3. A day before the wedding of your friend, you
discovered that your friend’s spouse-to-be is
having an
affair with an officemate. You caught them
sneaking out
of a hotel together. What will you do?
- Tell your friend about the affair but the wedding
may
not push through and all the preparations will be
cancelled. Your friend’s happiness will surely be
ruined, at worst he will not believe in you and
believe on his fiancée instead.
- Remain silent; keep the truth from your friend,
and allow the wedding to push through so as not
to ruin a very important day in your friend’s life
but suffer by being cheated on.
4. You are an eyewitness to a robbery.
A man (who happens to be your
neighbor) robbed a single mother,
middle-class woman for him to pay
for his son’s crucial operation.
If you go to the police to report the
crime, there is the strong
possibility that the money will be
returned to the woman. What will
you do? Will you report the crime
and tell the truth to the police or
say nothing since the money will
be used for the operation and the
son will be saved. (you know his
son as a kind and cheerful child)
6. There is a runaway trolley barreling down the
railway tracks. Ahead, on the tracks, there
are five people tied up and unable to move.
The trolley is headed straight for them. You
are standing some distance off in the train
yard, next to a lever. If you pull this lever, the
trolley will switch to a different set of tracks.
However, you notice that there is one person
on the side track. You have two options:

Do nothing and allow the trolley to kill the five

people on the main track.
Pull the lever, diverting the trolley onto the side
track where it will kill one person.
Which is the more ethical option? Or, more
simply: What is the right thing to do?
Lesson 6: Moral
Development
 Lesson Overview
1. Stages of Cognitive Development
2. Moral Development (Piaget)
3. Moral Development (Kohlberg)
 Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
 Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist proposed that
children progress through four distinct stages of
cognitive development, each characterized by
different ways of thinking and understanding the
world.

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years):

2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)
4. Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older)
 Sensorimotor Stage
 Infants learn about the world through their senses and
actions. The highlight of this stage is object
permanence – an understanding that objects continue
to exist even when they cannot be seen
 Preoperational Stage
 Children begin to use language and think symbolically,
but their thinking is still intuitive and egocentric. The
highlight of this stage is loss of egocentricity and
symbolic thinking
 Concrete Operational Stage
 Children start to think logically about concrete events.
They gain a better understanding of the concept of
conservation (quantity remains the same despite
changes in shape or appearance)
 Formal Operational Stage
 adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly,
reason logically, and plan systematically. They can
understand hypothetical situations and use deductive
reasoning. They now better understand concepts such
as justice.
 Piaget’s Stages of Moral Development
1. Heteronomous Morality (Moral Realism)
(5 to 10 years):
• Children view rules as fixed and
unchangeable, handed down by authority
figures. They believe in immanent justice
(the idea that wrongdoings will always be
punished).
• Moral judgments are based on
consequences rather than intentions.

2. Autonomous Morality (Moral Relativism)

(10 years and older):
• Children start to understand that rules are
created by people and can be changed
through mutual agreement. They consider
intentions behind actions when making
moral judgments.
• Moral judgments are based on intentions
and the concept of fairness and
reciprocity.
• Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory,
proposing that moral development
is a continual process that occurs
throughout the lifespan. Kohlberg's
theory outlines six stages of moral
development within three different
levels.
• Kohlberg's theory is broken down
into three primary levels. At each
level of moral development, there
are two stages. Similar to how
Piaget believed that not all people
reach the highest levels of
cognitive development, Kohlberg
believed not everyone progresses
to the highest stages of moral
development.
Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Pre-conventional morality is the earliest

period of moral development. It lasts
until around the age of 9. At this age,
children's decisions are primarily
shaped by the expectations of adults
and the consequences of breaking the
rules. There are two stages within this
level: (rationale of why an act is bad or
wrong is not fully understood)
Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The
earliest stages of moral development,
obedience and punishment are especially
common in young children, but adults are
also capable of expressing this type of
reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at
this stage see rules as fixed and absolute.
Obeying the rules is important because it is
a way to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the
individualism and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for individual
points of view and judge actions based on
how they serve individual needs. Reciprocity
is possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves one's own
interests.
Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is

marked by the acceptance of social rules
regarding what is good and moral.
During this time, adolescents and adults
internalize the moral standards they
have learned from their role models and
from society. This period also focuses on
the acceptance of authority and
conforming to the norms of the group.
There are two stages at this level of
morality:
Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal
Relationships): Often referred to as the
"good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage
of the interpersonal relationship of moral
development is focused on living up to social
expectations and roles. There is an emphasis
on conformity, being "nice," and
consideration of how choices influence
relationships.

Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is

focused on ensuring that social order is
maintained. At this stage of moral
development, people begin to consider
society as a whole when making judgments.
The focus is on maintaining law and order by
following the rules, doing one’s duty, and
respecting authority.
Level 3. Post-conventional Morality
At this level of moral development, people
develop an understanding of abstract
principles of morality. The two stages at this
level are:

Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights):

The ideas of a social contract and individual
rights cause people in the next stage to begin
to account for the differing values, opinions,
and beliefs of other people.6 Rules of law are
important for maintaining a society, but
members of the society should agree upon
these standards.
Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral
reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles
of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Kohlberg believed that only a relatively small percentage of people

ever reach the post-conventional stages (around 10 to 15%).6 One
analysis found that while stages one to four could be seen as
universal in populations throughout the world, the fifth and sixth
stages were extremely rare in all populations
Lesson 7: ETHICS AND
CULTURE

Concepts to be
discussed in this
lesson:
1. Influence of culture
to behavior
2. Strengths and
Weaknesses of the
Filipino Character
How does culture affect human
behavior?

• Since human beings are naturally

social creatures, we as people, are
also naturally drawn in Culture.
• People want to belong, to be accepted
with peers. We also need protection
from danger.
• Human beings learned to modify
behaviors to match that which their
cultural group deem acceptable.
The Filipino Character

Strengths

1. Pakikipag kapwa tao

2. Family solidarity
3. Joy and humor
4. Flexibility, adaptability,
and creativity
5. Hard work and industry
6. Hospitality
7. Gender specific values
8. Faith and religiosity
9. Ability to survive
Weaknesses

1. extreme personalism
2. extreme family-centeredness
3. Lack of discipline
4. passivity and lack of initiative
5. colonial mentality
6. lavishness, outright display of generosity
7. stereotyping; role-gender assignment
8. Kanya-kanya syndrome
9. Lack of self analysis and self reflection
10. Ningas kugon
11. Filipino Time
 Lesson 8: Cultural
relativism
Concepts to be
discussed in this
lesson:

1. What is moral relativism?

2. What is Cultural
relativism
3. Positive Insights of
Cultural relativism
4. Weaknesses of Cultural
relativism
Moral Relativism

• Moral relativism is the view that ethical standards,

morality, and positions of right or wrong are culturally
based and therefore subject to a person‘s individual
choice.

• Hence, asserts there is no global, absolute moral law that

applies to all people, for all time, and in all places.

• Cultural relativism is a form of Moral relativism. Different

cultures have different moral codes. Thus, “universal
truths in Ethics are myths since, “moral standards are
culture-bound.

• According to cultural relativism, morality or what is right or

wrong is not based on God, or personal belief, but on the
culture one is situated. In other words, morality is based
on the way of life of a particular society you are belong
with.
Positive Insights of Cultural
relativism
1. There is no objective standard
that can be used to judge one
society’s code as better than
another’s. There are no moral
truths that hold for all people
at all times.

2. The moral code of our own

society has no special status
and your culture do not hold
the truth or the absolute
standard; it is but one among
many. (This is humbling)
Cont.
We subscribe to an illusion if we think
that we already know what is right from
wrong. Or, we already understand the
absolute standard across all culture.
Those are the common mistakes of
those who are inexperienced in life.
They immediately think that they are
already experienced enough to
discover how the world works and what
is right and wrong.

3. It is arrogant for one culture to judge

another culture. There should be
tolerance among cultures (for
examples, indigenous people’s anito
worship and superstitious practices)
Objections to Cultural
Relativism
1. We could no longer say that
the customs of other
societies are morally inferior
to our own.

If Cultural Relativism were true,

then we would also be barred
from criticizing other, more
harmful practices. For example,
we would not be allowed to
criticize a society who is
conducting genocide against its
citizens. Or, if a society is
exploiting its citizens.
2. We could no longer criticize the code of our own
society.
Cultural Relativism suggests a simple test for
determining what is right and what is wrong: All
we need to do is ask whether the action is in
line with the code of the society in question. If
you subscribe to cultural relativism, then you
are not allowed to criticize your own culture.
3. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.
If Cultural Relativism is correct, can we
legitimately view this as progress? Progress means
replacing the old ways with new and improved ways.
Historically, criticism is fundamental to any change.
If the principles of cultural relativism go against any
form of criticism, then change or improvement to
aspect of our society can hardly be imagined.
4. Relativism in and of itself is self-
defeating. Logically, there must be
some standard by which to compare
two different moral statements to
determine which is the “more correct”
one.
5. relativists are also accused of
inconsistently claiming that there
are no universal moral norms while
appealing to a principle of tolerance as
a universal norm
Questions to Ponder
Do you agree that we cannot judge Yulin dog meat festival of China
as wrong?
Racism and Genocide were common
when the Nazis led by Hitler were in
power. Should we respect their culture
back then?
• From a remote tribe in Papua
Guinea: girls want sex just as
much as guys, and kids start
having sex at a very young age
— 6-8 for the girls and 10-12 for
the guys — with no social
stigma. However, while
everybody is having sex
whenever they want, premarital
meal-sharing is a big no-no.
You're not supposed to go out
for dinner together until after
you get married.
Also in Papua New Guinea, the
young boys of the Sambia Tribe
are taught to be men - to be
"warriors" - in a grueling series
of traditions that culminate with
possibly the strongest shot of
all: a cup of "man juice" from
the tribe's elders.
In many Middle eastern countries, such as
Yemen, women’s rights are severely
restricted, and domestic violence is
widespread.
Also, in Afghanistan, under the Taliban
regime, women faced extreme
restrictions on their freedoms and
rights, including being banned from
education and work. progress was
made after the fall of the Taliban, the
return of Taliban control has led to
fears of a regression in women's rights
and increased instances of abuse.
 In Iran, women face legal and social
discrimination, including restrictions on
dress and limitations in personal
freedoms. Domestic violence is a
significant issue, and the legal system
often fails to protect women adequately
Ethnocentricism
 While cultural relativists think
that there is no universal
standard of morality;
ethnocentrism, on the contrary,
thinks that there is a single
standard or a single culture
where morally right and wrong
can be derived.
 Aside from that, while cultural
relativists think that every culture
has their own way of living and
we have no way to tell which is
the best from them, ethnocentric
view proposes that there is a
superior culture, which should be
the basis of other cultures
 To cite a historical example, the Spanish
colonization of the Philippines exemplifies
ethnocentrism. Why? Because when the
Spaniards conquer the Filipinos, they
believe that they have the right to do so,
because they think that they have a better
culture from us. That is the same drive
why they think that our ancestors' form of
religion is wrong. As ethnocentric of their
own culture, they believe that their
religion--which is Catholicism--should be
recognized as the true religion.
 Hypothetically speaking, if Spaniards back
then were cultural relativists, we could
assume that they would not force our
ancestors to change their religion, because
they would recognize that there are other
practices where one can express their
spiritual connection to a Divine being.
Lesson 9: Empiricism and
Morality
LESSON OVERVIEW
1. What is empiricism?
2. Ethical Philosophy of David
Hume
3. Ethical Philosophy of John
Locke
 Empiricism
 A philosophical theory that emphasizes the role of
experience and sensory observation in the formation
of knowledge.
 It argues that all knowledge is derived from, and
validated by, sensory experience—what we see,
hear, touch, taste, and smell
 Moral empiricism - suggests that our understanding
of ethical principles and moral judgments is
grounded in experience.
David Hume
Scottish philosopher, historian, economist,
and essayist known especially for his
philosophical empiricism and skepticism.
He concluded that no theory of reality is
possible; there can be no knowledge of
anything beyond experience. Despite
the enduring impact of his theory of
knowledge, Hume seems to have
considered himself chiefly as a moralist.
 David Hume was never a university professor, unlike
many of the other philosophers of his time. He was
nominated for an academic position twice, but the
opposition of the Scottish clergy denied him the posts.
 Hume was skeptical of most religious beliefs, and
friction with the church was a constant theme in his
life. Hume did not suspend his judgment concerning
religion.
 He argued that religion was both irrational and
impractical:
 Fear of God and the expectations of an afterlife have less
day-to-day effect upon our conduct than is generally
supposed.
 Religions do positive harm. They invent mortal sins like
suicide, which have no natural depravity, and they
create “frivolous merits” which partake in no natural
good, like abstaining from certain foods or attending
ceremonies.
 Religions result in cruel persecutions, bigotry, strife
between sects or between sects and civil power, and the
hunting down of unorthodox opinions
 Hume divided the mind’s perceptions into 2
groups starting that the difference between the
2 “consist in the degree of force and liveliness
with which they strike upon the mind”
 Impression - These are the perceptions that
are the most strong. They enter the essences
with most force. These are directly; they result
from inward and outward sentiment. (facts
based on experience)
 Ideas - These are the less forcible and less
lively counterparts of impressions. These are
mechanisms that copy and reproduce sense
data formulated based upon the previously
perceived impressions.
(facts based on ideas)
He is most known for his 4 assertive theses:

1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather the

“slave of the passions.”
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from reasons.
3. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments:
feelings of approval (esteem, praise) and disapproval (blame)
felt by spectators who contemplate a character traits or action.
4. While some virtues and vices are natural, others (including
justice) are artificial.
 Hume sided with the moral sense theorists that a person gains
awareness of moral good and evil by experiencing the pleasure
of approval and the uneasiness of disapproval.
 Reason alone is insufficient to yield a judgment that something is
virtuous or vicious.
 John Locke
 According to him, when we were born, our mind was
like a “tabula rasa” or blank slate to where we write
our experiences
 He claimed that our understanding of right and
wrong develops through our experiences, especially
through our interactions with others in society.
 moral principles are not self-evident truths imprinted
on the mind at birth; they are learned through
observation, education, and social experiences
 Natural Law
 a set of moral principles that governs human behavior
and is based on the nature of human beings and the
world and is independent of any human-made laws.
 is based on the nature of human beings and their
condition in the world.
 provides a standard for determining what is right and
wrong, guiding individuals in their actions.
 Natural Rights
 are the rights that individuals possess inherently by
virtue of their human nature
 Each individual has a natural right to life, liberty and
property. These rights are inalienable, meaning they
cannot be surrendered or taken away by any
government or authority
(1) The right to life means that every individual has a
right to their own life and should not be harmed by
others. This is the most fundamental right, as it is the
basis for all other rights
(2) The right to liberty refers to the freedom to act
according to one's own will, as long as it does not
infringe on the rights of others.
(3) The right to property: individuals have a right to the
fruits of their labor, meaning that when someone
works on or cultivates something from nature, they
acquire ownership of it
Lesson 9: Consequentialist
Theories
Concepts to be discussed in this lesson:
1. What is Utilitarianism
2. Bentham’s theory
3. JS Mill’s theory
Utilitarianism

• The term utilitarianism is derived from the

root word “utility,” generally meaning “the
quality or state of being useful.”
Etymologically it is derived from the Latin
term utilis which signifies something as
“useful” or from the term uti, which means
“to use”
• As an ethical theory, the term utility instead
refers to valuing the action that brings about
the greatest happiness over pain or suffering
for the greatest number of people affected by
the course of action. It is in this sense that the
utilitarian thinkers understand what is “most
useful”.
• According to Classical Utilitarianism, an action
is right if it produces the greatest overall
balance of happiness over unhappiness.
Jeremy Bentham’s Classical Utilitarianism can be
summed up in three propositions

• Consequentialism - The morality of an action

depends solely on the consequences of the
action; nothing else matters.
• An action’s consequences matter only insofar as
they involve the greater or lesser happiness of
individuals. (determined via felicific calculus)
Amount of pleasure - amount of pain =moral
or immoral act

• In the assessment of consequences, each

individual’s happiness gets equal consideration.
This means that equal amounts of happiness
always count equally; nobody’s well-being
matters more than others.
• Thus, Bentham defined human
happiness entirely in terms of the
ability to obtain pleasure and avoid
pain. Similarly, the best
government was defined as one
that brought the greatest amount
of happiness to the greatest
number of people. Although
utilitarianism was implicit in the
philosophies of a number of the
earlier British empiricists, it was
Bentham who applied hedonism to
society as a whole.
• Bentham’s efforts were highly
influential and resulted in a number
of reforms in legal and social
institutions.
John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism

• Like his father, J. S. Mill was a dedicated social

reformer. His causes included freedom of
speech, representative government, and the
emancipation of women. J. S. Mill went on to
note that male chauvinism was often
defended on the basis of natural law (females
are biologically inferior to males) or on the
basis of some religious belief or another.

• Mill considered both defenses invalid and

believed that a sound science of human
nature (psychology) would provide the basis
for social equality.
• Like his father, J. S. Mill
embraced Bentham’s
utilitarianism: One should
always act in a way that brings
the greatest amount of
pleasure (happiness) to the
greatest number of people.
This principle should consider
both short- and long-term
pleasure and treat the
happiness of others as equal in
value to our own.
• Although J. S. Mill accepted Bentham’s
general principle of utilitarianism, his version
of it differed significantly from Bentham’s. In
Bentham’s calculation of happiness, all forms
of pleasure counted equally.

• For example, sublime intellectual pleasures

counted no more than eating a good meal. J.
S. Mill disagreed, saying that, for most
humans, intellectual pleasures were far more
important than the biological pleasures we
share with nonhuman animals: It is better to
be a human being dissatisfied than a pig
satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied
than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the
pig, are a different opinion, it is because they
only know their own side of the question."
 To sum it up, while both philosophers advocate for
utilitarianism’s main point that evaluates the
morality of actions based on their outcomes,
specifically the extent to which they promote
happiness or pleasure and minimize pain or
suffering, these are the differences on their beliefs:
1. Quantitative vs Qualitative
Bentham believed that the rightness or wrongness of
actions depends solely on their consequences in terms of
pleasure and pain.
Mill's utilitarianism is qualitative, by emphasizing the
quality of pleasures, not just their quantity. He took into
account the different qualities of pleasures and pains. He
believed that higher pleasures, which engage the higher
faculties, are intrinsically more valuable than lower
pleasures.
 2. Act vs Rule Utilitarianism:
Bentham's utilitarianism is typically interpreted as act
utilitarianism, which evaluates the morality of each
individual action based on its specific consequences.
Mill's utilitarianism leans towards rule utilitarianism,
evaluating actions based on rules that maximize overall
happiness. Rule utilitarians emphasize the importance
of long-term consequences over immediate outcomes
Mill places greater importance on the development of
moral and intellectual capacities, arguing that higher
pleasures contribute to a more progressive and ethical
society.
Lesson 10: Human Reason
as Source of Moral
Knowledge
Lesson Overview
1. Introduction to the lesson
2. Spinoza’s philosophy
3. Kant’s philosophy
Introduction

Does the end justify the means?

 Boiling someone alive and offering a

child’s life as a sacrifice to the gods might
be considered gruesome practices today
but anthropologists suggest that these
practices were thought to be morally right
in the past.
 Historically, Death by boiling has been
used as a form of execution in some parts
of Europe and Asia. In 6th century
England, for example, Henry VII legalized
boiling as a form of capital punishment for
the murderers who used poison to kill
their victim
 A notable instance was in 1531 when Richard
Roose, a cook, was boiled alive for allegedly
poisoning the porridge served to the Bishop of
Rochester and others.
 The method was designed to be a public
spectacle, intended to instill fear and serve as
a deterrent to others. Public executions of this
nature were meant to demonstrate the power
of the state and the consequences of
committing particularly egregious offenses.
The scenario demonstrates the limitation of both cultural
relativism and utilitarianism.
•From the standpoint of cultural relativism these practices
are acceptable as they are culturally motivated and
grounded.
• From a utilitarian standpoint, such actions are good in so far
that it increases the happiness of the majority in the
community. Hence, it is morally acceptable to kill an
innocent child for the greater happiness of the people.
•It also justifies boiling people as a form of punishment which
will instill fear in the hearts and minds of people for them not
to break any rule. This in effect will keep the community
safer and essentially secure the happiness of the population
and their peace of mind.
 Rationalism is a major epistemological theory that
emphasizes reason and intellect as the primary
sources of knowledge. In contrast to empiricism,
which holds that knowledge comes from sensory
experience, rationalism asserts that significant
knowledge can be gained through the use of
reason alone, independent of sensory input.
René Descartes
 Regarded as the father of Rationalism because
he emphasized the role of reason as the
primary source of knowledge and truth.
 Descartes believed that certain fundamental
truths could be known through reason alone,
independent of the senses.
 Cogito, Ergo Sum ("I Think, Therefore I Am"): the
very act of thinking proves the existence of the
self as a rational being.
 Innate Ideas
 some ideas, such as the concept of God, morality,
infinity, and mathematical truths, are innate in the
human mind and can be accessed through reason
 A virtuous life is one guided by reason, where
the individual masters their emotions and lives
in accordance with rational principles.
 Baruch Spinoza
 Spinoza rejected the common belief in his time
that that God, matter, and mind were all separate
entities. proposed that all three were simply
aspects of the same substance and that God,
nature, and the mind were inseparable. God is
present everywhere and in everything (pantheism)
 This proposal ran contrary to the anthropomorphic
God image of both the Jewish and Christian
religions, and he was condemned by both. He was
critical of religious superstition and dogma,
advocating for a rational understanding of the
scriptures and promoting the idea that reason and
philosophy should be free from theological
constraints.
 When he was 27 years old, the rabbis accused
Spinoza of heresy and urged him in vain to repent.
On July 27, 1656, he was excommunicated The civil
authorities, acting on the advice of the rabbis and
the Calvinist clergy, banished Spinoza from
Amsterdam.
 After a short time, however, he returned to the city
and supported himself by giving private lessons in
Cartesian philosophy and grinding and polishing
lenses. He consistently refused to accept gifts and
money offered to him by his admirers, one of whom
was the great philosopher Leibniz
 He even rejected the chair of philosophy at the
University of Heidelberg because accepting the
position would preclude his criticism of Christianity.
 A number of his other works were collected by his
friends and were published shortly after his death.
Spinoza contracted a lung disease, perhaps from his
lens-grinding activities, and died on February 21 at
the age of 44
 Spinoza's philosophy is built upon the idea that reason is
the key to understanding reality. He sought to create a
comprehensive system of thought that combined
metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics into a coherent
whole
 Spinoza argued that understanding the causes of
emotions can lead to greater control over them and,
consequently, to a more virtuous and rational life.
 Three Kinds of Knowledge
1. Imagination: Based on sensory experience and often
leads to inadequate or confused ideas.
2. Reason: Derived from common notions and the
understanding of things through their logical
relationships, leading to adequate ideas.
3. Intuitive Knowledge: The highest form of knowledge,
providing a direct understanding of individual essences
and the unity of everything in God.
Immanuel Kant: Duty Ethics

• The German Enlightenment philosopher,

Immanuel Kant, views morality as
something that is solely based on
reason.
““Nothing can possibly be conceived in
the world, or even out of it, which can
be called good, without qualification,
except a good will.”
“Act in such a way that you treat
humanity, whether in your own person
or in the person of another, never
merely as a means to an end, but
always at the same time as an end."
Kant’s moral theory is also called as
Duty Ethics: It is because
Individuals have moral duties and
obligations that guide their actions.

Principles of Kant’s categorical

imperative:

 Universalizability: Actions should

be based on principles that could
be applied universally to all people.
 Respect for Persons: Treat
individuals as ends in themselves
and not merely as means to an end.
The good will
• Kant introduced the concept of "good will" as a
central principle in his ethical philosophy.
• Humans, aside from being rational, are persons of
moral worth. If every person realizes this, he
should always do what is right. His ethics are
developed on the principle that they must not
presuppose a specific object or will, but must
always reflect universal laws. When we act from
duty, we exhibit the good will.
Good Will as the Highest Good:

Kant believed that the moral worth of an action is

determined by the intention behind it, rather than
its consequences. Good will, according to Kant, is
the highest form of moral goodness because it
involves acting out of a sense of duty and moral
obligation, rather than pursuing personal desires or
self-interest.

The good will is the only and highest good without

qualification because it will always be good. It is
also the condition of all the other goods.
Are there times when we may want to
consider the welfare of the majority
even when it means doing something
which violates a universal moral
standard?

Take Joker as an example.

Joker is a psychopath who loves to
murder, steal and destroy. Batman
has the capability to catch him but
Batman doesn’t kill him because it is
wrong. Whenever Batman catches
him, he is sent to jail, and he kills
again, which causes sadness to a
majority of people. Would it been
have better if Batman kills Joker to
prevent more deaths and suffering?
Lesson 11: Divine
Command Approach
 Lesson Overview
1. Introduction to Divine command theory
2. The Euthyphro Dilemma
3. Scriptures as basis for morality
4. Blasphemy
5. Aquinas’ Natural Law Theory
Divine Command Theory states that what is right
as the same as what God commands, and
ethical standards are the creation of God’s will.

Following God’s will is seen as the very definition

what is ethical. Because God is seen as
omnipotent and possessed of free will, God
could change what is now considered ethical,
and God is not bound by any standard of right
or wrong short of logical contradiction.

Morality has been often understood as dependent

to religion. This notion has been even part of
our childhood upbringing. Our parents have
taught us that we should study hard because
God would bless us if we accomplish it; and we
should avoid telling lies because God would
punish if we commit dishonesty.
The Euthyphro dilemma is found in Plato's
Socratic dialogue
•Euthyphro, in which Socrates asks
Euthyphro, "Is the pious loved by the gods
because it is pious, or is it pious because
it is loved by the gods? ("Is conduct right
because the gods command it, or do the
gods command it because it is right?“)
1. Are right actions right because God
commands them? (God’s command
alone makes things right because you
believe only commands good things)
2. Are right actions commanded by God
because they are right? (Moral
actions are good as justified by
reason that’s why God commands
them)
 If we based morality simply on command (and without
reason) then such notion of right and wrong becomes
arbitrary. Or it lacks any rational basis.

 If a law giver lacks any rational basis why s/he

commands it, then s/he can command anything and it
will eventually becomes right. The "rightness" or
"goodness" of an action is dependent on the willful
command of a figure such as God or any person with
an authority than can be simply just founded on ones
personal whim.

 You may further listen on another example on why

basing morality on command is problematic. As an
argument based on analogy, the example involves the
case of infamous DDS or Duterte's Die-hard
Supporters.
Scriptures
 Another issue that is common when we speak
of religion and morality is the status of
scriptures. Many people perceive the sacred
texts, such as the Bible, as the word of god.
For these people, what is written in these texts
should be taken as a moral standard to be
embraced.
 The authors of Elements of Moral
Philosophy cautions us on accepting the
notion that scriptures are the source of moral
standard. According to them, Biblical quotes
are often taken out of its context.
 someone who is advocating a moral position
quotes a few words from the Bible, out
of context, and then interprets them in a way
that supports their position; yet those words
suggest something else entirely when read in
context.
DO you think these verses support the Divine Command
Theory?

1. Be kind to one another, tenderhearted, forgiving one

another, as God in Christ forgave you. (Ephesians 4:32 )
2. For God so loved the world, that he gave his only Son,
that whoever believes in him should not perish but have
eternal life. (John 3:16)
3. Honor thy father and mother, Thou shalt not kill, Thou
shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou
shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor, Thou
shalt not covet thy neighbor’s wife (10 commandments)
4. ‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all
your soul and with all your mind. This is the first and
greatest commandment. And the second is like it: ‘Love
your neighbor as yourself. (Matthew 22:37-40)
Do you think these verses make the divine command
theory of morality problematic?
1. “If a man beats his male or female slave with a rod and
the slave dies as a direct result, he must be punished, but
he is not to be punished if the slave gets up after a day or
two, since the slave is his property.”
Exodus 21:20-21)
2. Samaria shall become desolate; for she hath rebelled
against her God: they shall fall by the sword: their infants
shall be dashed in pieces, and their women with child shall
be ripped up.” (Hosea 13:16)
“If a man lies with a man as one lies with a woman, both of
them have done what is detestable. They must be put to
death.” Leviticus 20:13
3. “If, however, the charge is true and no proof of the girl’s
virginity can be found, she shall be brought to the door of her
father’s house and there the men of her town shall stone her to
death. She has done a disgraceful thing in Israel by being
promiscuous while still in her father’s house.
Deuteronomy 22:20-1

4. "When men strive together one with another, and the wife of
the one draweth near for to deliver her husband out of the hand
of him that smiteth him, and putteth forth her hand, and taketh
him by the secrets: Then thou shalt cut off her hand, thine eye
shall not pity her." (Deuteronomy 25:11-12)

5. Samuel gives King Saul this commandment from the Lord:

“Now go and smite Amalek, and utterly destroy all that they
have, and spare them not; but slay both man and woman, infant
and suckling, ox and sheep, camel and ass.” (Samuel 15:3)
 Saint Augustine
 God is the ultimate source of all goodness and that
everything God created is inherently good
 Evil is not a substance or a thing in itself but rather
the absence or privation of good. It occurs when
humans misuse their free will and turn away from
God, who is the supreme good, choosing lesser
goods in a disordered way.
 after the Fall of Adam and Eve, human nature
became tainted by original sin, making it difficult for
people to choose the good on their own (because
original sin weakens the will, inclining humans
toward selfishness and sin.)
 Augustine emphasized the necessity of divine grace
for living a morally good life. He believed that, due
to the effects of original sin, humans are incapable
of achieving righteousness on their own. Only
through God’s grace, given freely and without merit,
can people overcome their sinful tendencies and
choose the good.
Theory of Natural Law

Another variation of the divine command theory is

the theory of natural law. Both views think that
morality is based on God, but they vary in
terms of how God's moral standard is
expressed.

While the Divine command theory rests on the

literal god's order, which can be read on the
scriptures. The natural law, on the other hand,
looks at the order of things as the source of
right and wrong.
According to Aquinas, human beings have a natural
inclination, or telos, toward certain ends, such as
self-preservation, reproduction, and the pursuit of
knowledge and social life.

Aquinas identified primary precepts of Natural Law

that are fundamental moral principles derived
from the basic inclinations of human nature.
These primary precepts include the preservation
of life, procreation, the pursuit of knowledge,
living in society, and worshiping God.
While Natural Law is accessible to human reason,
Aquinas also recognized the role of divine law in
guiding human conduct. Aquinas arranged laws
in a Hierarchy:

1. eternal law - God's providential plan for the

universe, serves as the highest law. The
Eternal Law is beyond human comprehension
and serves as the foundation for all other laws.
2. divine law revealed in scriptures. Divine law
includes both the Old Testament laws and the
teachings of Jesus Christ in the New
Testament. It serves as a guide for human
conduct and provides additional insights
beyond what can be known through natural
reason
3. natural law – while known through reason, is
derived from the eternal law. It represents
the rational creature's participation in the
eternal law. These are self-evident
principles that govern human behavior,
derived from the basic inclinations of
human nature, such as self-preservation
and the pursuit of knowledge. Aquinas
introduced the concept of synderesis, an
innate human capacity to understand the
basic principles of the Natural Law.
Practical reasoning, guided by synderesis,
allows individuals to apply these principles
to specific situations, making moral
decisions based on an understanding of
what is inherently good or bad.

4. human law. It is the product of human reason

and is created by legitimate authority to
regulate the common good of society.
Points of Thomas Aquinas’ Natural Law

1. God designed natural law so that

humans participate in God’s
eternal law.

2. According to Thomas Aquinas, the

first precept of natural law is “good
is to be done and pursued, and evil
is to be avoided.”

3. The #1 mistake people make about

natural law is that they assume
that natural law is secular and non-
religious.

4. Natural law is common to all the

nations.
Blasphemy
Blasphemy generally refers to the act of
speaking or expressing disrespectful,
irreverent, or contemptuous words or
actions concerning sacred things, such as
religious beliefs, deities, or revered
figures. The concept of blasphemy is often
deeply tied to religious or cultural norms
and varies across different societies and
belief systems.

The most common punishment for

blasphemers was capital punishment
through hanging or stoning, justified by
the words of Leviticus 24:13–16. The last
person hanged for blasphemy in Great
Britain was Thomas Aikenhead aged 20,
in Scotland in 1697.
 Religious Fundamentalism and
Extremism
 Religious fundamentalism – an attitude
that emphasizes a strict adherence to the
foundational doctrines of a religion.
Leaders impose a belief in the literal
interpretation of sacred texts and often
involves the rejection of modern
interpretations or secular influences that
are seen as corrupting the purity of the
religion.
 Leaders or members of a certain religion
are often intolerant towards people with
different beliefs.
 Religious Extremism: Seeing one’s faith
as an end
 Religious extremism occurs when
individuals or groups see their religious
beliefs as the only path to truth. Faith and
adherence to doctrine is more important
than values like compassion, tolerance,
and human dignity
 An example would be the Crusades which
happened from the 11th-13th century.
 Suicide bombers who do their acts in the
name of faith
 Cult Leadership
 Cults are groups led by charismatic leaders
who demand total loyalty and control over
their followers. These leaders often
manipulate their followers through
psychological coercion, isolation from family,
or exploitation of their resources – mostly
financial but sometimes even sexual.
 Followers are often pressured to surrender
their individual judgment, out of fear of their
leaders or eternal suffering.
 In many instances, members are isolated
from society, discouraging contact with the
outside world and fostering dependence on
the leader.
 The People's Temple and Jonestown (1978)
 The People's Temple, led by Jim Jones, started as
a progressive religious organization but devolved
into a controlling cult.
 Jones exerted absolute control over his followers,
isolating them in a jungle settlement in Guyana.
When the U.S. government investigated the cult's
abuses, Jones led over 900 members to commit
mass suicide.
 Heaven's Gate Cult (1997)
 Led by Marshall Applewhite who, after surviving a
near-death experience in 1972, was recruited
into the cult by one of his nurses, Bonnie Lu
Nettles. In 1975, Applewhite and Nettles
persuaded a group of 20 people from Oregon to
abandon their families and possessions and
move to eastern Colorado, where they promised
that an extraterrestrial spacecraft would take
them to the “kingdom of heaven.”
 The spacecraft never arrived, membership in
Heaven’s Gate diminished but resurfaced as
Applewhite began recruiting new members
 Soon after the 1995 discovery of the comet Hale-
Bopp, the Heaven’s Gate members became
convinced that an alien spacecraft was on its way to
earth, hidden from human detection behind the
comet. Applewhite advocated sexual abstinence,
and several male cult members followed his
example by undergoing castration operations.
 In late March 1997, as Hale-Bopp reached its closest
distance to Earth, Applewhite and 38 of his followers
drank a lethal mixture of phenobarbital and vodka
and then lay down to die, hoping to leave their
bodily containers, enter the alien spacecraft, and
pass through Heaven’s Gate into a higher existence.
 Socorro Bayanihan Services
 Was a civic organization founded by Rosalina
Taruc, former teacher of Jey Rence B. Quilario,
who was later known as Senior Agila
 After Taruc died on June 27, 2021, Quilario
formally became president of SBSI.
 Quilario claimed to be God, specifically the
Santo Nino and a Messiah. Not complying with
his orders was said to mean damnation in hell
 Underage members were allegedly coerced
into marrying and having sex with adult
partners under the pretense that such actions
were required by a "rule to go to heaven.“
 Former members reported being forced to
hand over significant portions of their
government benefits to fund the group.
Lesson 11: Aristotle’s
Virtue Ethics
Lesson Overview

1. Before Aristotle: Socrates and Plato

2. Introduction to Aristotelian Ethics
3. What is Virtue?
4. Doctrine of the Golden Mean
5. A similar perspective: Gautama Buddha’s
Middle Way
 Socrates
 Recognized as one of the foundational figures
of Western philosophy
 He did not write anything down, his teachings
and ideas have been preserved through the
writings of his students
 Socrates considered himself ignorant. He said
that recognizing one’s own ignorance is the
beginning of wisdom. (By acknowledging their
lack of knowledge, individuals open
themselves to learning and moral
improvement.)
 He taught that the goal of life is knowledge,
and knowledge leads to virtue. Virtue (state
of moral excellence) is a form of knowledge,
specifically knowledge of the good
 "No one does wrong willingly,"
 All wrong actions stem from ignorance rather than
malice.
 “Know thyself" , “An unexamined life is not worth
living”
 Knowledge is essential to moral development
 individuals must understand their own nature, desires,
and beliefs to live a virtuous and meaningful life.
 “The care of the soul is the task of philosophy”
 Socrates viewed the soul as the true self and believed
that caring for the soul is the most important task in
life. He argued that living a virtuous life is the best way
to care for the soul, as it aligns the soul with the good
and leads to a harmonious and happy life. Moral
corruption harms the soul, just as physical illness
harms the body
 Plato
 Plato believed that the physical world is just an illusion.
 In his “Theory of Forms”, the physical world is a
reflection of a higher, unchanging reality of abstract
Forms or Ideas
 Just like Socrates, Plato believes that virtue is a kind of
knowledge
 Parts of the soul
(1) Rational – seen only in humans, which is why we have
the ability to use reason. It seeks truth and knowledge
and is responsible for making thoughtful decisions.
(2) Spirited – seen in humans and some animals – as it is
associated with emotions. It is the source of courage
which enables a person to act bravely and uphold what
is right, especially in the face of challenges or fears
(3) Appetitive - concerned with desires and basic needs,
such as hunger, thirst, and sexual urges. It is driven by
physical and material wants. It is seen in all living things
 Each part of the soul performs its appropriate
function, leading to a balanced and virtuous life.
 This model is not only an ethical framework for
individuals but also serves as an analogy for Plato’s
vision of a just society, where different classes or
groups correspond to these parts of the soul.
 In "The Republic," Plato develops his theory of the
soul's tripartite structure to explain justice and the
nature of the individual.
 Commoners are dominated by the appetitive part
 Soldiers are dominated by the spirited part
 The philosopher king is dominated by the rational part
 Introduction to Aristotelian Ethics
 According to Aristotle, Humans are also biological
organisms characterized by the functions of
nutrition, sensation, reproduction, and movement.
That is, although humans are distinct from other
animals (because of our reasoning ability), we do
share many of their motives.
 As with other animals, much human behavior is
motivated by appetites. Action is always directed at
the satisfaction of an appetite. That is, behavior is
motivated by such internal states as hunger, sexual
arousal, thirst, or the desire for bodily comfort.
Because the existence of an appetite causes
discomfort, it stimulates activity that will eliminate
it.
 Much human behavior, then, like all animal
behavior, is hedonistic; its purpose is to bring
pleasure or to avoid pain.
 Unlike other animals, however, we can use our
rational powers to inhibit our appetites.
Furthermore, our greatest happiness does not
come from satisfying our biological needs.
Rather, it comes from exercising our rational
powers to their fullest
 Aristotle’s ethics, as outlined primarily in his work
Nicomachean Ethics, represents a foundational
approach to moral philosophy that emphasizes
virtue, character, and the development of good
habits. His ethical theory is grounded in the concept
of achieving eudaimonia, often translated as
"flourishing" or "the good life.“
 In modern contexts, we define flourishing as living a
life that is characterized by the fulfillment of one’s
potential, the practice of virtues, the engagement in
rational and meaningful activities, and the
maintenance of positive social relationships. It
involves achieving a balanced and well-rounded
sense of well-being and happiness through the
integration of moral character, personal growth, and
social connection
What is Virtue?
Virtue - "a trait of character, character traits
that lie between extremes and are
developed through habitual practice, that it
is good for anyone to have.“
• Virtue Ethics focuses on the quality of the
person.
• It reduces the emphasis on rules and
particular acts.
• It does not focus on whether an action is
right or wrong, nor on whether the
consequences are good or bad.
• Here are some examples of virtues
according to Aristotle: Courage,
benevolence, fairness, prudence, civility,
friendliness, reasonableness
• The practice of moral and intellectual
virtues will enable a person to achieve
eudaimonia, the ultimate goal of life.
The Golden Mean
Aristotle understood virtue as a
character that can be
developed, and that this can be
developed by practicing the
golden mean.
The Golden Mean is a sliding
scale for determining what is
virtuous. Aristotle believed that
being morally good meant
striking a balance between two
vices. You could have a vice of
excess or one of deficiency.
1. Courage is the virtue that allows individuals to face
fear and act rightly in the face of danger. It involves
a rational assessment of risk and a willingness to
endure hardship for the sake of a noble cause.
2. Temperance is the virtue of self-control and
moderation, particularly in relation to bodily
pleasures and desires. It involves enjoying physical
pleasures in a balanced and rational manner
3. Generosity involves the appropriate and rational
use of one’s resources, especially in helping others.
A generous person gives willingly and appropriately
4. Proper ambition involves having the right amount of
ambition, where one aims for worthy goals and
strives to achieve them without being excessively
driven by power or completely lacking in motivation
5. Proper pride, or magnanimity, involves having a
balanced sense of self-worth and honor. It means
recognizing and valuing one's own achievements
and capabilities
6. Patience or good temper refers to managing one's
anger appropriately. It means expressing anger
when it is justified and in a controlled manner
7. Friendliness involves being pleasant and sociable
with others. It means maintaining a balance where
one is not excessively eager to please nor being
rude
8. Modesty is about having an appropriate level of
self-awareness and humility. It involves
recognizing when one’s behavior might be
inappropriate or disrespectful
Siddhartha Gautama Middle Way

The “Middle Way” is a fundamental concept in

Buddhism that refers to a path of moderation
away from the extremes of self-indulgence
and self-mortification.
This concept was introduced in Buddha's first
sermon after his enlightenment, where he
described his own life experiences of
indulgence and severe asceticism, ultimately
leading to the realization that neither extreme
leads to true enlightenment.
Both Aristotle and Buddha advocate for a
balanced approach to life, avoiding extremes.
 The difference between their philosophies is
about the purpose of living a life in balance:
(1) Aristotle’s ethics are based on a naturalistic view
of human nature and purpose (telos),
emphasizing rationality and the development of
character within the context of societal life.
(2) Buddhism, on the other hand, focuses on
overcoming suffering (dukkha) and the cycle of
rebirth (samsara)
Lesson 12: Justice and
Fairness
Lesson Overview
1. What is justice?
2. What do philosophers say
about justice?
3. Essential properties of
justice
4. Modern frameworks of Justice
5. Theories on “what is just?”
 Justice is defined as the quality of being just, impartial,
or fair. It involves right action towards another person.
What do philosophers say about justice?
 Justice, according to Plato, is about balance and
harmony. It represents the right relationship between
conflicting aspects within an individual or a
community. He defines justice as everyone having and
doing what they are responsible for or what belongs to
them.
 Advocates of divine command theory say justice, and
indeed the whole of morality, is the authoritative
command of God. Murder is wrong and must be
punished, for instance, because God says it so.
 John Locke: Justice is derived from the natural law.
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a social Contract theorist
said that justice derives from the mutual agreement
of members of society to be governed in a political
order (in other words; everyone concerned)
 Utilitarian Philosophers: It is about something that
has the best consequences (maximity of happiness)
 Essential Properties of Justice
1. Rule of Law - Justice is rooted in
the rule of law, where laws are
established, known, and applied
consistently to all members of
society.
2. Protecting Rights - Justice
involves safeguarding individual
rights and freedoms
3. Fairness - individuals are treated
equitably and without bias.
Fairness implies impartiality and
objectivity in the application of
rules and laws.
4. Equality - involves treating all
individuals with equal respect and
consideration
5. Accountability - individuals and
institutions accountable for their
actions,
6. Proportionality - punishment or
response to wrongdoing (as well as
reward for good action) is
proportionate to the offense
committed.
7. Transparency - Justice demands
openness and clarity in decision-
making processes,
8. Responsiveness - Justice requires
responsiveness to the needs and
concerns of individuals and
communities, addressing
grievances and correcting
injustices.
Restoration - Justice includes the
restoration of relationships and the
repair of harm caused by
wrongdoing,
Modern frameworks of Justice
1. Distributive Justice - Concerns the fair allocation of
resources and opportunities among individuals and
groups in society. (equality and equity)
2. Retributive Justice - Focuses on just punishment for
wrongdoing, ensuring that those who violate laws or
moral codes are held accountable.
3. Procedural Justice - Emphasizes the fairness of the
processes and procedures used to make decisions
and resolve disputes.
4. Restorative Justice - Seeks to repair the harm caused
by wrongdoing through reconciliation, restitution, and
rehabilitation of both victims and offenders.
Theories on Justice
1. Justice as Equality
2. Justice based on
Contribution
3. Justice based on Needs and
Abilities
4. Justice as Freedom
5. Justice as Fairness
Justice as Equality
(Egalitarianism)
• Egalitarian theories advocate
for the most equal
distribution of resources and
opportunities possible. They
argue that inequalities should
be minimized, and that all
members of society should
have access to a basic level
of well-being
• Every person should be given
exactly equal shares of a
society’s or a group’s benefits
and burdens.”
Criticisms

• Humans are not equal in terms of

abilities, values, needs, desires,
physical characteristics.
• Egalitarians ignore some
characteristics that should be taken
into accounting in the distribution of
goods: need, ability, effort.
Justice based on Contribution
(Capitalism)
“Benefits should be distributed
according to the value of the
contribution the individual makes to
a society, a task, a group, or an
exchange.”
How is the value of the contribution
measured?
(1) By work effort: the harder you
work, the greater the benefits
accrued to you.
(2) Productivity: the greater the
quantity the person contributed, the
greater the gains of the person.
Justice based on Needs and Abilities
(Socialism)

“Work burden should be distributed

according to people’s abilities, and
(but) benefits should be distributed
according to people’s needs.”
. This approach emphasizes fairness and
equity by ensuring that everyone has
what they need to thrive, while also
taking into account their unique
capabilities.
Justice as Freedom
From each according to what he chooses
to do, to each according to what he
makes for himself and what others
choose to do for him and choose to
give him of what they’ve been given
previously and have not yet expanded
or transferred.”

Libertarianism places a strong emphasis

on individual liberty, limited
government intervention, and
personal autonomy. It advocates for
maximizing personal freedom and
minimizing government control in
various aspects of life, including
economics, social matters, and
personal choices.
Critique:
1. Freedom from coercion at the
expense of other rights and
values. (due to minimal
government intervention )

2. It will generate unjust

treatment for the
disadvantaged
Justice as Fairness
The distribution of benefits and burdens in a society is just,
if and only if:

1. Each person has an equal right to the most extensive

basic liberties compatible with similar liberties;
2. Social and economic inequalities are arranged so that
they are both:
a) to the greatest benefits of the least advantaged
people and
b) attached to offices and positions open to all under
conditions of fair and equal opportunities
Lesson 12: Taxation
 Lesson Overview

1. Taxes a moral obligation

2. Tax Avoidance and Tax
Evasion
 Since human persons are considered as moral
persons, we have rights and with them come
duties. Rights place upon us duties, and as
persons who need the company of others, we
have the duty to help the society. Justice moves
us to obey laws, pay taxes and fulfill our duties.
 Citizens violate justice if they refuse to pay taxes.
Since taxes are indispensable for the society to
properly function, it is our moral duty to pay
them.
 Tax evasion is the illegal practice of not paying taxes
owed. It involves deliberate actions to avoid paying
taxes through illegal means. For Example:
 Underreporting income.
 Falsifying records.
 Claiming false deductions or credits.
 Using unreported cash transactions to hide income
 Tax avoidance is the legal use of tax laws to reduce
one's tax burden. It involves planning and
structuring transactions in a way that minimizes tax
liability within the bounds of the law. For Example:
 Investing in tax-advantaged accounts
 Taking advantage of tax deductions and credits
Lesson 13: Climate
Change and Justice
Lesson Overview
1. What is climate change?
2. Evidences of Climate change
3. The climate change debate: who is
to blame?
4. What can we do as ethical beings to
address climate change?
 What is Climate Change?
 Climate change refers to significant and lasting
changes in the statistical properties of the climate
system, often defined as average temperature and
precipitation patterns, over extended periods,
typically decades or longer.
 The primary causes of climate change can be
categorized into two factors:
(1) natural – these have always influenced Earth's
climate, such as volcanic eruptions
(2) anthropogenic (human-induced) – the greater
cause of the rapid changes observed in recent
decades
(1) Burning of Fossil Fuels: burned for energy
production, transportation, and industrial
processes, releasing large amounts of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) into
the atmosphere.
(2) Deforestation: leads to the reduction of the number
of trees that can absorb CO₂
(3) Vehicle Emissions: Cars, trucks, planes, and ships
burn fossil fuels, releasing CO₂ and other pollutants.
(4) Greenhouse Effect:
• When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth, some of it
is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed,
warming the planet
• greenhouse gases trap some of this heat, keeping the
Earth warm enough to support life.
• Human activities, have significantly increased the
concentrations of these gases causing global
temperatures to rise.
 Evidences of Climate Change
(1) Rising Global Temperatures
(2) Shrinking Ice Sheets and
Glaciers
(3) Rise in Global sea levels
(4) Ocean Acidification
(5) Extreme Weather Events
(6) Changes in the geographic
distribution and behavior of
wildlife species
 What Can We Do as Ethical Beings to Address
Climate Change?
Lesson 14: Globalization
 Lesson Overview

1. What is globalization?
 Globalization is a complex and
multifaceted phenomenon that refers to
the increasing interconnectedness and
interdependence of economies, cultures,
societies, and individuals across the world.
 It involves the exchange of goods,
services, ideas, information, and
technologies on a global scale.
 Globalization has been driven by
advancements in communication,
transportation, technology, and trade,
allowing for greater integration among
countries and regions.
Ethical Challenges of Globalization

Labor Exploitation: Globalization has led to the

outsourcing of labor to countries with lower labor
standards and wages. This can result in
exploitative working conditions, inadequate
wages, and lack of workers' rights in some
regions.

Sweatshops and Child Labor: The global supply

chain can involve the use of sweatshops and child
labor in the production of goods. Workers, often in
developing countries, may be subjected to unsafe
working conditions and low wages.

Environmental Degradation: Increased trade and

production can lead to environmental
degradation, as industries seek to minimize costs
without adequate consideration for sustainability.
This includes issues such as deforestation,
pollution, and resource depletion.
 Loss of Traditional Livelihoods: Global
competition can negatively impact traditional
and local industries, leading to job loss and
economic instability in certain regions.
 Inequality and Income Disparities:
Globalization can exacerbate economic
inequalities both within and between
countries. While some regions benefit from
economic growth, others may remain
marginalized or excluded.
 Human Rights Violations: In some cases,
governments and corporations may prioritize
economic interests over human rights
concerns, leading to situations where human
rights are violated or neglected.
 Health and Safety Concerns: Globalization can
facilitate the spread of infectious diseases,
counterfeit products, and unsafe
pharmaceuticals. It can also affect food safety
and the quality of consumer products.
Lesson 15: Bioethics

Lesson Overview

1. What is Bioethics?
2. Ethical Principles in Bioethics/Medicine
3. Bioethical Issues
 What is Bioethics?
 Bioethics is the study of ethical,
social, and legal issues that arise in
biomedicine and biomedical
research.
 Bioethics seeks to address
questions about what is right and
wrong in the context of life sciences
and health care, guiding
professionals and society in making
informed and morally sound
decisions
 Ethical Principles in
Bioethics/Medicine
1. Respect for Persons: This
encompasses treating individuals
with dignity and respect,
acknowledging their inherent value
and rights
2. Autonomy: the right of individuals
to make informed decisions about
their own health and medical
treatments. It respects the patient's
autonomy and their ability to
choose or refuse treatment.
3. Beneficence: doing good and acting
in the best interest of the patient.
Health care providers are
encouraged to promote the well-
being of patients and take actions
that benefit them
4. Non-Maleficence: "do no harm," this principle
obligates health care professionals to avoid causing
harm to patients. It requires a careful consideration of
the risks and benefits of any medical intervention.

5. Confidentiality: personal health information should

be kept private and only shared with those who are
authorized to know. It is crucial for maintaining trust
between patients and health care providers. Right to
privacy on the other hand, refers to a patient’s right to
not share information that he or she does not wish to
share.

6. Informed Consent: requires that patients be fully

informed about the potential risks, benefits, and
alternatives of any medical procedure or treatment,
research

7. Justice: involves fairness in the distribution of health

resources and treatments, ensuring that all individuals
have access to quality health care without
discrimination.
 Bioethical Issues

 Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide

 The practice of intentionally ending a person's
life to relieve suffering
 Is it ethical to end a life to alleviate suffering?
 Abortion
 termination of a pregnancy by removing or
expelling an embryo or fetus
 At what point does life begin? What are the
rights of the mother versus the rights of the
fetus?
 Genetic Engineering and Cloning
 manipulation of an organism's genes using
biotechnology, and the creation of genetically
identical organisms through cloning
 What are the implications of altering genetic
material? Should there be limits on genetic
modifications in humans? What are the risks of
cloning, and how do we address them?
 End-of-Life Care
 involves Decisions and practices related to the
care of individuals who are near the end of life,
including palliative care and life-support
withdrawal
 How do we ensure dignity and quality of life for
terminally ill patients? Who should
make decisions when patients are
incapacitated? What criteria should guide
the withdrawal of life support?
 Organ Donation and Transplantation
 How do we ensure fair allocation of organs? What
are the ethical implications of living versus
deceased donation?

 Reproductive Technologies
 includes Technologies that assist in reproduction,
such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), surrogacy, and
genetic screening of embryos.
 What are the rights of donors, parents, and
children? How do we regulate and oversee these
technologies?

 Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

 The use of AI and machine learning in medical
diagnosis, treatment planning, and patient care.
 How do we ensure the accuracy and fairness of AI
systems? What are the implications for patient
privacy and data security?
Lesson 16: Societal Issues
that we face as ethical
beings
Lesson Overview:
We will discuss these issues in this lesson:
1. Prostitution
2. Domestic violence
3. Child abuse
4. Human trafficking
5. Drug abuse
 Prostitution
 Regarded as one of the oldest professions
 involves the exchange of sexual services for money
or goods.
 Street level Prostitution
 Escort Services: Individuals advertise services
through agencies or independently and meet clients
in private settings
 Online Prostitution: Services offered through online
platforms
 Causes: poverty, lack of employment opportunities,
and social marginalization, desire to maintain a
certain lifestyle
 Domestic violence
 refers to abusive behaviors used by one partner to
control or dominate another partner in an intimate
relationship.
 Forms of Domestic violence
(1) Physical Abuse – any forms of physical harm.
(2) Psychological Abuse: Involves manipulation,
humiliation, intimidation, isolation, or constant
criticism that undermines the victim's self-worth
(3) Sexual Abuse: Includes any non-consensual sexual
activity or coercion into unwanted sexual acts
(4) Economic Abuse: Entails controlling a partner's
access to financial resources, making them
financially dependent on the abuser
 The Cycle of Violence
 introduced by psychologist Lenore E. Walker
in her 1979 book "The Battered Woman." It
outlines the repetitive nature of abusive
relationships and how the cycle perpetuates
itself.

(1) Tension Building Phase

involves increased tension and minor incidents
of abuse

(2) Acute Battering Incident

involves the actual outbreak of violence, which
can be physical, emotional, or sexual. This is
the shortest phase but the most intense

(3) Honeymoon Phase

the abuser may express remorse, apologize, or
promise that the abuse will never happen
again. There may be loving gestures, gifts, and
attention
 Barriers to Leaving the Relationship
(1) Emotional Dependence: victim’s self-worth is
shattered, making them feel incapable of living
independently
(2) Financial Dependence: makes escape seem
impossible.
(3) Fear of further violence
(4) Cultural or familial pressures especially in societies
where divorce or separation is stigmatized
(5) Hope for Change: The honeymoon phase can create
hope that the abuser will change
 Child abuse
 a grave and pervasive issue that affects the
physical, emotional, and psychological well-
being of children worldwide
 Types of Child Abuse
(1) Physical Abuse: involves the deliberate
infliction of physical harm on a child
(2) Emotional/Psychological Abuse: involves
behaviors that harm a child’s self-esteem,
sense of worth, and emotional well-being
(3) Sexual Abuse: involvement of a child in
sexual activity that they do not fully
comprehend and do no consent to
(4) Neglect: failure to provide for a child’s basic
needs
 Causes of Child Abuse
(1) Parents who are
• abused as children are more likely to abuse their own
• use substances such as illegal drugs
• Mentally ill

(2) Culture
• Those where corporal punishment and strict
disciplinary measures are socially accepted
• Where Poverty is widespread
 Effects
(1) Physical : Immediate physical injuries and Long-
term health issues
(2) Emotional and Psychological - Emotional trauma,
aggressive behavior substance abuse, and
delinquency
(3) Cognitive and Educational: difficulties with
concentration, Poor academic performance and
lower educational attainment
(4) Social: Difficulty forming and maintaining
relationships, potential to be abusive in future
relationships or as parents
 Human trafficking
 A modern form of slavery which affects
globally
 victims often subjected to horrific
conditions and deprived of their freedom
 involves the exploitation of through
coercion, fraud, or force for various
purposes.
 Traffickers may promise a better life, job
opportunities, or education or may use
threats of violence against the victim or
their family
Forms of Human trafficking:
(1) Sex Trafficking
(2) Labor Trafficking
(3) Organ Trafficking
(4) Child Trafficking
 Drug abuse
 Refers to the use of illegal drugs or the
use of prescription or over-the-counter
drugs for purposes other than those for
which they are meant to be used, or in
excessive amounts.
 Levels of involvement in substances
(1) Substance use
(2) Substance intoxication
(3) Substance dependence
(4) Sunstance withdrawal
 Substance use – refers to consumption of a drug
 Substance intoxication - A temporary and reversible
condition that occurs when a person consumes a
substance, resulting in psychological and
physiological effects. (for example, being drunk)
 Substance dependence - haracterized by the
compulsive use of a substance despite harmful
consequences. It involves both psychological
cravings and physical withdrawal symptoms when
the substance is not use. There is often tolerance
(reduced reaction to a drug following its repeated
use, which leads to increase dose for one to feel the
effects of the drug)
 Classifications of drugs
(1) uppers/ stimulants
(2) Downers / depressants
(3) Narcotic analgesics
(4) Hallucinogens
 Stimulants ("uppers“)
 These are substances that increase alertness,
attention, energy, and physical activity. It may
decrease appetite.
 Examples include Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamines
and Cocaine
 Depressants ("downers)
 These slow down the function of the CNS. They are
used medically to treat anxiety, insomnia, and seizures
but can also lead to drowsiness, relaxation, and
decreased inhibition.
 Examples include Alcohol, Benzodiazepines and
Barbiturates
 Narcotic Analgesics
 drugs that relieve pain by binding to opioid receptors in
the brain and spinal cord.
 can produce feelings of euphoria, making them highly
addictive.
 Examples include Morphine, Heroin, Oxycodone and
Fentanyl
 Hallucinogens
 class of drugs that cause profound distortions in a
person’s perceptions of reality, often leading to visual
or auditory hallucinations
 Examples include LSD, Psilocybin, MDMA and Ketamine