Unit2a 2
Unit2a 2
10.1
Chapter 10
Error Detection
and
Correction
10.2 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Note
10.3
10-1
INTRODUCTION
Let us first discuss some issues related, directly or
indirectly, to error detection and correction.
10.4
Note
10.5
Figure 10.1 Single-bit
error
10.6
Note
10.7
Figure 10.2 Burst error of length
8
10.8
Burst error (contd..)
■Burst error does not necessarily mean that the errors
occur in consecutive bits.
■The length of the burst is measured from the first
corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit. Some bits in
between may not have been corrupted.
■The number of bits affected depends on the data rate
and duration of noise.
■For example, if we are sending data at I kbps, a noise
of 11100 s can affect 10 bits; if we are sending data at
I Mbps, the same noise can affect 10,000 bits.
10.9
Note
10.10
Error Detection vs
Correction
■In error detection, we are looking only to see if any
error has occurred. We are not even interested in
the number of errors.
■In error correction, we need to know the exact
number of bits that are corrupted and more
importantly, their location in the message.
■If we need to correct one single error in an 8-bit
data unit, we need to consider eight possible error
locations
10.11
Methods of Error correction
10.12
Figure 10.3 The structure of encoder and
decoder
10.13
Note
10.14
Figure 10.4 XORing of two single bits or two
words
10.15
10-2 BLOCK
CODING
In block coding, we divide our message into blocks,
each of k bits, called datawords. We add r redundant
bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The
resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords.
10.16
Figure 10.5 Datawords and codewords in block
coding
10.17
Error detection in block
coding
■If the following two conditions are met, the receiver
can detect a change in the original codeword.
1. The receiver has (or can find) a list of valid
codewords.
2. The original codeword has changed to an invalid
one.
10.18
Figure 10.6 Process of error detection in block
coding
10.19
Example
10.2
Let us assume that k = 2 and n = 3. Table 10.1 shows the
list of datawords and codewords. Later, we will see
how to derive a codeword from a dataword.
10.20
Example 10.2
(continued)
2. The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and
111 is received. This is not a valid codeword and is
discarded.
10.21
Table 10.1 A code for error detection (Example 10.2)
10.22
Note
10.23
Error correction in block
coding
■Error correction is much more difficult than error
detection.
■In error correction the receiver needs to find (or
guess) the original codeword sent.
■We need more redundant bits for error correction
than for error detection.
10.24
Figure 10.7 Structure of encoder and decoder in error
correction
10.25
Example
10.3
Let us add more redundant bits to Example 10.2 to see if
the receiver can correct an error without knowing what
was actually sent. We add 3 redundant bits to the 2-bit
dataword to make 5-bit codewords. Table 10.2 shows the
datawords and codewords. Assume the dataword is 01.
The sender creates the codeword 01011. The codeword is
corrupted during transmission, and 01001 is received.
First, the receiver finds that the received codeword is not
in the table. This means an error has occurred. The
receiver, assuming that there is only 1 bit corrupted, uses
the following strategy to guess the correct dataword.
10.26
Example 10.3
(continued)
1. Comparing the received codeword with the first
codeword in the table (01001 versus 00000), the
receiver decides that the first codeword is not the one
that was sent because there are two different bits.
10.28
Note
10.29
Example
10.4
Let us find the Hamming distance between two pairs of
words.
10.30
Note
10.31
Example
10.5
Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding
scheme in Table 10.1.
Solution
We first find all Hamming distances.
10.32
Example
10.6
Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding
scheme in Table 10.2.
Solution
We first find all the Hamming distances.
10.34
Figure 10.8 Geometric concept for finding dmin in error detection
10.35
Figure 10.9 Geometric concept for finding dmin in error correction
10.36
10-3 LINEAR BLOCK
CODES
Almost all block codes used today belong to a subset
called linear block codes. A linear block code is a code
in which the exclusive OR (addition modulo-2) of two
valid codewords creates another valid codeword.
10.38
Note
10.39
Example
10.10
Let us see if the two codes we defined in Table 10.1 and
Table 10.2 belong to the class of linear block codes.
10.41
Note
10.42
Table 10.3 Simple parity-check code C(5, 4)
10.43
Figure 10.10 Encoder and decoder for simple parity-check
code
r0 = a3 + a2 + a1 + a0 (modulo 2)
s0 = b3 + b2 + b1 + b0 + q0 (modulo 2)
10.44
Example
10.12
Let us look at some transmission scenarios. Assume the
sender sends the dataword 1011. The codeword created
from this dataword is 10111, which is sent to the receiver.
We examine five cases:
10.46
Note
10.47
Note
10.48
Two-dimensional Parity
10.49
Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code
10.50
Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code
10.51
Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code
10.52
Table 10.4 Hamming code C(7, 4)
10.53
Figure 10.12 The structure of the encoder and decoder for a Hamming
code
10.54
r0 = a2 + a1 + a0 (modulo-2)
r1 = a3 + a2 + a1 (modulo-2)
r2 = a1 + a0 + a3 (modulo-2)
s0 = b2 + b1 + b0 + q0 (modulo-2)
s1 = b3 + b2 + b1 + q1 (modulo-2)
s2 = b1 + b0 + b3 + q2 (modulo-2)
10.55
Table 10.5 Logical decision made by the correction logic analyzer
10.56
Example
10.13
Let us trace the path of three datawords from the sender
to the destination:
1.The dataword 0100 becomes the codeword 0100011.
The codeword 0100011 is received. The syndrome is
000, the final dataword is 0100.
2.The dataword 0111 becomes the codeword 0111001.The
codeword 0011001 is received. The syndrome is 011.
After flipping b2 (changing the 1 to 0), the final dataword
is 0111.
3.The dataword 1101 becomes the codeword 1101000. The
codeword 0001000 is received. The syndrome is 101. After
flipping b0, we get 0000, the wrong dataword. This shows
that our code cannot correct two errors.
10.57
r0 = a2 + a1 + a0 (modulo-2)
r1 = a3 + a2 + a1 (modulo-2)
r2 = a1 + a0 + a3 (modulo-2)
s0 = b2 + b1 + b0 + q0 (modulo-2)
s1 = b3 + b2 + b1 + q1 (modulo-2)
s2 = b1 + b0 + b3 + q2 (modulo-2)
Dataword: 0100
Codeword Transmitted: 0100011
Codeword Received: 0100011
10.58
r0 = a2 + a1 + a0 (modulo-2)
r1 = a3 + a2 + a1 (modulo-2)
r2 = a1 + a0 + a3 (modulo-2)
s0 = b2 + b1 + b0 + q0 (modulo-2)
s1 = b3 + b2 + b1 + q1 (modulo-2)
s2 = b1 + b0 + b3 + q2 (modulo-2)
Dataword: 0111
Codeword Transmitted: 0111001
Codeword Received: 0011001
10.59
r0 = a2 + a1 + a0 (modulo-2)
r1 = a3 + a2 + a1 (modulo-2)
r2 = a1 + a0 + a3 (modulo-2)
s0 = b2 + b1 + b0 + q0 (modulo-2)
s1 = b3 + b2 + b1 + q1 (modulo-2)
s2 = b1 + b0 + b3 + q2 (modulo-2)
Dataword: 1011
Codeword Transmitted: 1011100
Codeword Received: 0011100
10.60
r0 = a2 + a1 + a0 (modulo-2)
r1 = a3 + a2 + a1 (modulo-2)
r2 = a1 + a0 + a3 (modulo-2)
s0 = b2 + b1 + b0 + q0 (modulo-2)
s1 = b3 + b2 + b1 + q1 (modulo-2)
s2 = b1 + b0 + b3 + q2 (modulo-2)
Dataword: 1101
Codeword Transmitted: 1101000
Codeword Received: 0001000
10.61
Figure 10.13 Burst error correction using Hamming
code
10.62
10-4 CYCLIC
CODES
Cyclic codes are special linear block codes with one
extra property. In a cyclic code, if a codeword is
cyclically shifted (rotated), the result is another
codeword.
10.64
Figure 10.14 CRC encoder and
decoder
10.65
Figure 10.15 Division in CRC
encoder
10.66
Figure 10.16 Division in the CRC decoder for two
cases
10.67
Example
■ A bit stream 1101101 is transmitted using the standard CRC
method. The generator polynomial is x4+x2+1.What is the
codeword generated?
Example
■ Show the calculation at the receiver for CRC codeword
11100011001 and polynomial x4+x3+1. Does this codeword
contain error?
Example
■ A bit stream 10011101 is transmitted using the standard CRC
method. The generator polynomial is x3+1.
a. What is the actual bit string transmitted? (codeword)
b. Suppose third bit from left is inverted during tranmission.
How will receiver detect this error? (syndrome bit)
Note
10.71
Note
10.72