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Unit2a 2

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Unit 2: Data-Link Layer

Introduction – Link Layer Addressing – Error Detection and

Correction- Cyclic Codes- Check sum- Forward Error correction –
Data Link Layer Protocols- Automatic Repeat (ARQ) protocols -Stop
and Wait, Go-Back-N, Selective Repeat, HDLC.

Experiment 3: Implementation of stop and wait

Experiment 4: Implementation of CRC method for Error detection.

10.1
Chapter 10
Error Detection
and
Correction

10.2 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Note

Data can be corrupted

during transmission.

Some applications require that

errors be detected and corrected.

10.3
10-1
INTRODUCTION
Let us first discuss some issues related, directly or
indirectly, to error detection and correction.

Topics discussed in this section:

Types of Errors
Redundancy
Detection Versus Correction
Forward Error Correction Versus Retransmission
Coding
Modular Arithmetic

10.4
Note

In a single-bit error, only 1 bit in the data

unit has changed.

10.5
Figure 10.1 Single-bit
error

10.6
Note

A burst error means that 2 or more bits

in the data unit have changed.

10.7
Figure 10.2 Burst error of length
8

10.8
Burst error (contd..)
■Burst error does not necessarily mean that the errors
occur in consecutive bits.
■The length of the burst is measured from the first
corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit. Some bits in
between may not have been corrupted.
■The number of bits affected depends on the data rate
and duration of noise.
■For example, if we are sending data at I kbps, a noise
of 11100 s can affect 10 bits; if we are sending data at
I Mbps, the same noise can affect 10,000 bits.

10.9
Note

To detect or correct errors, we need to

send extra (redundant) bits with data.

10.10
Error Detection vs
Correction
■In error detection, we are looking only to see if any
error has occurred. We are not even interested in
the number of errors.
■In error correction, we need to know the exact
number of bits that are corrupted and more
importantly, their location in the message.
■If we need to correct one single error in an 8-bit
data unit, we need to consider eight possible error
locations

10.11
Methods of Error correction

■Forward error correction

■Forward error correction is the process in which the
receiver tries to guess the message by using redundant
bits.
■Retransmission
■It is a technique in which the receiver detects the
occurrence of an error and asks the sender to resend the
message.

10.12
Figure 10.3 The structure of encoder and
decoder

10.13
Note

In modulo-N arithmetic, we use only the

integers in the range 0 to N −1, inclusive.

10.14
Figure 10.4 XORing of two single bits or two
words

10.15
10-2 BLOCK
CODING
In block coding, we divide our message into blocks,
each of k bits, called datawords. We add r redundant
bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The
resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords.

Topics discussed in this section:

Error Detection
Error Correction
Hamming Distance
Minimum Hamming Distance

10.16
Figure 10.5 Datawords and codewords in block
coding

10.17
Error detection in block
coding
■If the following two conditions are met, the receiver
can detect a change in the original codeword.
1. The receiver has (or can find) a list of valid
codewords.
2. The original codeword has changed to an invalid
one.

10.18
Figure 10.6 Process of error detection in block
coding

10.19
Example
10.2
Let us assume that k = 2 and n = 3. Table 10.1 shows the
list of datawords and codewords. Later, we will see
how to derive a codeword from a dataword.

Assume the sender encodes the dataword 01 as 011 and

sends it to the receiver. Consider the following cases:

1. The receiver receives 011. It is a valid codeword. The

receiver extracts the dataword 01 from it.

10.20
Example 10.2
(continued)
2. The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and
111 is received. This is not a valid codeword and is
discarded.

3. The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and

000 is received. This is a valid codeword. The receiver
incorrectly extracts the dataword 00. Two corrupted
bits have made the error undetectable.

10.21
Table 10.1 A code for error detection (Example 10.2)

10.22
Note

An error-detecting code can detect

only the types of errors for which it is
designed; other types of errors may
remain undetected.

10.23
Error correction in block
coding
■Error correction is much more difficult than error
detection.
■In error correction the receiver needs to find (or
guess) the original codeword sent.
■We need more redundant bits for error correction
than for error detection.

10.24
Figure 10.7 Structure of encoder and decoder in error
correction

10.25
Example
10.3
Let us add more redundant bits to Example 10.2 to see if
the receiver can correct an error without knowing what
was actually sent. We add 3 redundant bits to the 2-bit
dataword to make 5-bit codewords. Table 10.2 shows the
datawords and codewords. Assume the dataword is 01.
The sender creates the codeword 01011. The codeword is
corrupted during transmission, and 01001 is received.
First, the receiver finds that the received codeword is not
in the table. This means an error has occurred. The
receiver, assuming that there is only 1 bit corrupted, uses
the following strategy to guess the correct dataword.

10.26
Example 10.3
(continued)
1. Comparing the received codeword with the first
codeword in the table (01001 versus 00000), the
receiver decides that the first codeword is not the one
that was sent because there are two different bits.

2. By the same reasoning, the original codeword cannot

be the third or fourth one in the table.

3. The original codeword must be the second one in the

table because this is the only one that differs from the
received codeword by 1 bit. The receiver replaces
01001 with 01011 and consults the table to find the
dataword 01.
10.27
Table 10.2 A code for error correction (Example 10.3)

10.28
Note

The Hamming distance between two

words is the number of differences
between corresponding bits.

10.29
Example
10.4
Let us find the Hamming distance between two pairs of
words.

1. The Hamming distance d(000, 011) is 2 because

2. The Hamming distance d(10101, 11110) is 3 because

10.30
Note

The minimum Hamming distance is the

smallest Hamming distance between
all possible pairs in a set of words.

10.31
Example
10.5
Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding
scheme in Table 10.1.
Solution
We first find all Hamming distances.

The dmin in this case is 2.

10.32
Example
10.6
Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding
scheme in Table 10.2.

Solution
We first find all the Hamming distances.

The dmin in this case is 3.

A coding scheme C is written as C(n, k) with a separate expression

for dmin.
10.33
Note

To guarantee the detection of up to s

errors in all cases, the minimum
Hamming distance in a block
code must be dmin = s + 1.

10.34
Figure 10.8 Geometric concept for finding dmin in error detection

10.35
Figure 10.9 Geometric concept for finding dmin in error correction

10.36
10-3 LINEAR BLOCK
CODES
Almost all block codes used today belong to a subset
called linear block codes. A linear block code is a code
in which the exclusive OR (addition modulo-2) of two
valid codewords creates another valid codeword.

Topics discussed in this section:

Minimum Distance for Linear Block Codes
Some Linear Block Codes

10.38
Note

In a linear block code, the exclusive OR

(XOR) of any two valid codewords
creates another valid codeword.

10.39
Example
10.10
Let us see if the two codes we defined in Table 10.1 and
Table 10.2 belong to the class of linear block codes.

1. The scheme in Table 10.1 is a linear block code

because the result of XORing any codeword with any
other codeword is a valid codeword. For example, the
XORing of the second and third codewords creates the
fourth one.

2. The scheme in Table 10.2 is also a linear block code.

We can create all four codewords by XORing two
other codewords.
10.40
Example 10.11

In our first code (Table 10.1), the numbers of 1s in the

nonzero codewords are 2, 2, and 2. So the minimum
Hamming distance is dmin = 2. In our second code (Table
10.2), the numbers of 1s in the nonzero codewords are 3,
3, and 4. So in this code we have dmin = 3.

10.41
Note

A simple parity-check code is a

single-bit error-detecting
code in which
n = k + 1 with dmin = 2.

10.42
Table 10.3 Simple parity-check code C(5, 4)

10.43
Figure 10.10 Encoder and decoder for simple parity-check
code

r0 = a3 + a2 + a1 + a0 (modulo 2)
s0 = b3 + b2 + b1 + b0 + q0 (modulo 2)

10.44
Example
10.12
Let us look at some transmission scenarios. Assume the
sender sends the dataword 1011. The codeword created
from this dataword is 10111, which is sent to the receiver.
We examine five cases:

1. No error occurs; the received codeword is 10111. The

syndrome is 0. The dataword 1011 is created.
2. One single-bit error changes a1 . The received
codeword is 10011. The syndrome is 1. No dataword
is created.
3. One single-bit error changes r0 . The received codeword
is 10110. The syndrome is 1. No dataword is created.
10.45
Example 10.12
(continued)
4. An error changes r0 and a second error changes a3 .
The received codeword is 00110. The syndrome is 0.
The dataword 0011 is created at the receiver. Note that
here the dataword is wrongly created due to the
syndrome value.
5. Three bits—a3, a2, and a1—are changed by errors.
The received codeword is 01011. The syndrome is 1.
The dataword is not created. This shows that the simple
parity check, guaranteed to detect one single error, can
also find any odd number of errors.

10.46
Note

A simple parity-check code can detect

an odd number of errors.

10.47
Note

All Hamming codes discussed in this

book have dmin = 3.

The relationship between m and n in

these codes is n = 2m − 1.

10.48
Two-dimensional Parity

10.49
Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code

10.50
Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code

10.51
Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code

10.52
Table 10.4 Hamming code C(7, 4)

10.53
Figure 10.12 The structure of the encoder and decoder for a Hamming
code

10.54
r0 = a2 + a1 + a0 (modulo-2)
r1 = a3 + a2 + a1 (modulo-2)
r2 = a1 + a0 + a3 (modulo-2)