Basic Casting
Process
Pattern &
Core
Making
Pattern Core Mould Casting
A physical model of casting is a
pattern which is used to make
the mold.
In case, the castings is required
to be hollow, such as in the
case of pipe fittings, additional
patterns, known as cores, are
used to develop these cavities.
In core making, cores are
formed, (usually of sand) that
are placed into a mold cavity to
form the interior surface of the
casting.
CAST PRODUCTS
Small & Big
SMALL & BIG
Casting Examples
Figure 11.2 Typical gray-
iron castings used in
automobiles, including
transmission valve body
(left) and hub rotor with
disk-brake cylinder (front).
Source: Courtesy of Central
Foundry Division of
General Motors
Corporation.
Figure 11.3 A cast
transmission housing.
SMALL & BIG
Gas Engine Bed Plate Casting
CASTING
PROCESS
Expendable Permanent
Mold Mold
Permanent Expendable
Pattern Pattern Die
Sand Shell Lost Lost Cold Hot
Casting Casting Foam Wax Chamber Chamber
Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb)
for an air compressor frame (photo courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).
SAND CASTING
The set of channels through which a molten metal flows
to the mold cavity is called gating system.
Typical gating system consists of a pouring cup and a
sprue receiving the poured melt, runner – a channel
through which the melt is supplied to the gates through
which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
Sand Mold Features
Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.
Sand Mold Features
Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.
Sand Casting
Advantages Disadvantages Recommended
Application
Least Expensive in Dimensional Use when
small quantities (less accuracy inferior to strength/weight
than 100) other processes, ratio permits
requires larger
Ferrous and non - tolerances Tolerances, surface
ferrous metals may be finish and low
cast Castings usually machining cost
exceed calculated does not warrant a
weight more expensive
Possible to cast very
large parts. process
Surface finish of
Least expensive ferrous castings
tooling usually exceeds 125
RMS
Types of Patterns
The Pattern
A full‑sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to
account for shrinkage and machining
allowances in the casting
Pattern materials:
Wood - common material because it is easy
to work, but it warps
Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts
much longer
Plastic - compromise between wood and
metal
One-piece
mold
Pattern Materials
Wood & Wood Materials -Teak
Metal and Alloys- Aluminium, Steel &Cast
iron
Plasters
Plastic and Rubber
Wax and Foam
Pattern Material Characteristics
Pattern Material Characteristics
TABLE 11.3
a
Rating
Characteristic Wood Aluminum Steel Plastic Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G
Wear resistance P G E F E
Strength F G E G G
Weightb E G P G P
Repairability E P G F G
Resistance to:
Corrosionc E E P E P
Swellingc P E E E E
aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
bAs a factor in operator fatigue.
cBy water.
Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York.
McGraw-Hill, 1958.
Pattern allowances
Process Parameters
Pouring Temperature
Cooling rate
Fluidity (viscosity)
Grain
Structure
Spiral mould
Limit of flow before freezing
Draft Guidelines:
In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates
removal of pattern from mold
Draft = 1 for sand casting
In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid
in removal of the part from the mold
Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold
processes
Similar tapers should be allowed if solid
cores are used
MACHINING ALLOWANCES
Almost all sand castings must be machined to
achieve the required dimensions and part
features
Additional material, called the machining
allowance, is left on the casting in those
surfaces where machining is necessary
Typical machining allowances for sand castings
are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)
Product Design Considerations
Geometric simplicity - Avoid unnecessary
complexity.
Corners - Avoid sharp corners, generous fillet
radius.
Section thickness - Uniform section thickness to
avoid shrinkage cavities and hot spots.
Draft - Facilitate removal of parts from mold. (1 deg.
For sand and 2/3 deg. for permanent)
Use of cores - minimize the use of core
Dimensional tolerance and surface finish - proper
choice of casting method.
Machining allowances - For assembly purposes,
typically 1.5 to 6 mm.
Product Design Considerations
Shrinkage, hot spot
Draft and core elimination
Types of molding sand
Desirable Mold Properties
Strength ‑ to maintain shape and resist erosion
Permeability ‑ to allow hot air and gases to
pass through voids in sand
Thermal stability ‑ to resist cracking on contact
with molten metal
Collapsibility ‑ ability to give way and allow
casting to shrink without cracking the casting
Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be
reused to make other molds
Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
Good refractory properties ‑ capacity to
endure high temperatures
Small grain size yields better surface finish
on the cast part
Large grain size is more permeable, allowing
gases to escape during pouring
Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due
to interlocking, compared to round grains
Disadvantage: interlocking tends to
reduce permeability
Binders Used with Foundry Sands
Sand is held together by a mixture of water and
bonding clay
Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7%
clay
Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and
phosphate)
Additives are sometimes combined with the
mixture to increase strength and/or
permeability
Types of Sand Mold
Green‑sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and
water;
“Green" means mold contains moisture at
time of pouring
Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than
clay
And mold is baked to improve strength
Skin‑dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of
a green‑sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm,
using torches or heating lamps
Moisture content test:
Moisture is the property of the moulding sand it is defined as the amount
of water present in the moulding sand. Low moisture content in the
moulding sand does not develop strength properties. High moisture
content decreases permeability.
Procedures are:
1. 20 to 50 gms of prepared sand is placed in the pan and is heated by an
infrared heater bulb for 2 to 3 minutes.
2. The moisture in the moulding sand is thus evaporated.
3. Moulding sand is taken out of the pan and reweighed.
4. The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the difference in the
weights, of the original moist and the consequently dried sand samples.
Where, W1-Weight of the sand before drying,
W2-Weight of the sand after drying.
Clay content test:
Clay influences strength, permeability and other moulding properties. It is
responsible for bonding sand particles together.
Procedures are:
1. Small quantity of prepared moulding sand was dried
2. Separate 50 gms of dry moulding sand and transfer wash bottle.
3. Add 475cc of distilled water + 25cc of a 3% NaOH.
4. Agitate this mixture about 10 minutes with the help of sand stirrer.
5. Fill the wash bottle with water up to the marker.
6. After the sand etc., has settled for about 10 minutes, Siphon out the
water from the wash bottle.
7. Dry the settled down sand.
8. The clay content can be determined from the difference in weights of
the initial and final sand samples.
Percentage of clay content = (W1-W2)/(W1) * 100
Where, W1-Weight of the sand before drying,
W2-Weight of the sand after drying.
Grain fitness test:
The grain size, distribution, grain fitness are determined with the help of the
fitness testing of moulding sands. The apparatus consists of a number of
standard sieves mounted one above the other, on a power driven shaker.
The shaker vibrates the sieves and the sand placed on the top sieve gets
screened and collects on different sieves depending upon the various sizes of
grains present in the moulding sand.
The top sieve is coarsest and the bottom-most sieve is the finest of all the
sieves. In between sieve are placed in order of fineness from top to bottom.
Procedures are:
1. Sample of dry sand (clay removed sand) placed in the upper sieve
2. Sand is vibrated for definite period
3. The amount of same retained on each sieve is weighted.
4. Percentage distribution of grain is computed.
Permeability test:
The quantity of air that will pass through a standard specimen of the sand at
a particular pressure condition is called the permeability of the sand.
Following are the major parts of the permeability test equipment:
1. An inverted bell jar, which floats in a water.
2. Specimen tube, for the purpose of hold the equipment
3. A manometer (measure the air pressure)
Steps involved are:
1. The air (2000cc volume) held in the bell jar is forced to pass through the
sand specimen.
2. At this time air entering the specimen equal to the air escaped through the
specimen
3. Take the pressure reading in the manometer.
4. Note the time required for 2000cc of air to pass the sand
5. Calculate the permeability number
6. Permeability number (N) = ((V x H) / (A x P x T))
Where,
V-Volume of air (cc)
H-Height of the specimen (mm)
A-Area of the specimen (mm2)
P-Air pressure (gm / cm2)
T-Time taken by the air to pass
through the sand (seconds).
Strength test:
Measurements of strength of moulding sands can be carried out on the
universal sand strength testing machine. The strength can be measured in
compression, shear and tension.
The sands that could be tested are green sand, dry sand or core sand. The
compression and shear test involve the standard cylindrical specimen that
was used for the permeability test.
a. Green compression strength:
Green compression strength or simply green strength generally refers to the
stress required to rupture the sand specimen under compressive loading.
The sand specimen is taken out of the specimen tube and is immediately
(any delay causes the drying of the sample which increases the strength)
put on the strength testing machine and the force required to cause the
compression failure is determined. The green strength of sands is generally
in the range of 30 to 160 KPa.
b. Green shear strength:
With a sand sample similar to the above test, a different adapter is fitted in
the universal machine so that the loading now be made for the shearing of
the sand sample. The stress required to shear the specimen along the axis
is then represented as the green shear strength. It may vary from 10 to 50
KPa.
c. Dry strength:
This test uses the standard specimens dried between 105 and 1100 C for
2 hours. Since the strength increases with drying, it may be necessary to
apply larger stresses than the previous tests. The range of dry
compression strengths found in moulding sands is from 140 to 1800 KPa,
depending on the sand sample.
Steps involved are:
1. Specimen is held between the grips
2. Apply the hydraulic pressure by rotating the hand wheel
3. Taking the deformation use of the indicators.
Refractoriness test:
The refractoriness is used to measure the ability of the sand to withstand the
higher temperature. Steps involved are:
1. Prepare a cylindrical specimen of sand
2. Heating the specimen at 1500 C for 2 hours
3. Observe the changes in dimension and appearance
4. If the sand is good, it retains specimen share and shows very little
expansion. If the sand is poor, specimen will shrink and distort.
Mould hardness test:
Hardness of the mould surface can
be tested with the help of an
“indentation hardness tester”. It
consists of indicator, spring loaded
spherical indenter. The spherical
indenter is penetrates into the mould
surface at the time of testing. The
depth of penetration w.r.t. the flat
reference surface of the tester.
Mould hardness number =
((P) / (D – (D2-d2))
Where,
P- Applied Force (N)
D- Diameter of the indenter (mm)
d- Diameter of the indentation (mm)
Core
Full‑scale model of interior surfaces of part
It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to
pouring
The molten metal flows and solidifies between
the mold cavity and the core to form the
casting's external and internal surfaces
May require supports to hold it in position in the
mold cavity during pouring, called chaplets
Core in Mold
Figure 11.4 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by
chaplets, (b) possible chaplet design, (c) casting with
internal cavity.
MOULDING PROCESS
The process of forming moulds is called moulding.
Moulding tools:
Shovel,Riddle,Rammer,Strike off bar,Vent wire,Lifter
Slick,Trowel,Swab,Draw spike,rawhide mallet,Gate
cutter,Rapping plate,Sprit level,Clamps,Lifters,Moulding
box,Moulding flasks.
Types of Moulding Process
1.Hand Moulding
2.Machine moulding
3.Bench moulding
Melting furnaces
Oxy-fuel Furnace
Uses a fuel gas such as propane, natural gas
or acetylene
Oxygen or atmosphere is blown in and
combined with fuel
Heat from combustion melts the charge
Oxy-fuel Furnace
Resistance Furnace
A current passed through a material resulting in
ohmic heating
Radiation heats charge material
Some convection and conduction occurs
Resistance Furnace
Induction Furnace
A current is passed through a water cooled coil
near or around the charge
Eddy currents are produced in the charge
material in response to the coil current
Heat is generated through ohmic heating in the
material
Induction Furnace
Electric Arc Furnace
A current is passed from separate electrodes
creating arcs of ionized gas
Heat is transferred from the arc into the charge
material
Can be either DC or AC
Electric Arc Furnace
Cupola furnace
Crucible furnace
METAL CASTING PROCESSES
1. Sand Casting
2. Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
3. Permanent Mold Casting Processes
4. Casting Quality
5. Metals for Casting
6. Product Design Considerations
Two Categories of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is
sacrificed to remove part
Advantage: more complex shapes possible
Disadvantage: production rates often
limited by time to make mold rather than
casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of
metal and can be used to make many castings
Advantage: higher production rates
Disadvantage: geometries limited by need
to open mold
Overview of Sand Casting
Most widely used casting process, accounting
for a significant majority of total tonnage cast
Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including
metals with high melting temperatures, such as
steel, nickel, and titanium
Castings range in size from small to very large
Production quantities from one to millions
Other Expendable Mold Processes
Shell Molding
Investment Casting
Ceramic Mold Casting
Vacuum Molding
Expanded Polystyrene Process
Plaster Mold and
Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of
sand held together by thermosetting resin binder
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell‑molding: (1) a match‑plate or
cope‑and‑drag metal pattern is heated and placed over a
box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin.
Shell Molding
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell‑molding: (2) box is inverted so
that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a
layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to
form a hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose
uncured particles drop away;
Shell Molding
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell‑molding: (4) sand shell is heated
in oven for several minutes to complete curing; (5) shell
mold is stripped from the pattern;
Shell Molding
Figure 11.5 Steps in shell‑molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold
are assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue
removed.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of shell molding:
Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
Good dimensional accuracy - machining often
not required
Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
Can be mechanized for mass production
Disadvantages:
More expensive metal pattern
Difficult to justify for small quantities
Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is
melted away prior to pouring molten metal
"Investment" comes from a less familiar
definition of "invest" - "to cover completely,"
which refers to coating of refractory material
around wax pattern
It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and
intricate detail
Investment Casting
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are
produced, (2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form
a pattern tree
Investment Casting
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated
with a thin layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by
covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make
it rigid
Investment Casting
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an
inverted position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip
out of the cavity, (6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature,
the molten metal is poured, and it solidifies
Investment Casting
Figure 11.8 Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is
broken away from the finished casting and the parts are
separated from the sprue
Investment Casting
Figure 11 9 A one‑piece compressor stator with 108
separate airfoils made by investment casting (photo
courtesy of Howmet Corp.).
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of investment casting:
Parts of great complexity and intricacy can
be cast
Close dimensional control and good surface
finish
Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
Additional machining is not normally
required ‑ this is a net shape process
Disadvantages
Many processing steps are required
Relatively expensive process
CERAMIC MOULDING
Principle:
The mould is made of plaser of paris(gypsum or
Caso4 + H2o)with the addition of talc and silica to
improve strength and to control the time required
for the plaster to set.
These components are mixed with water and the
resuting slurry is poured over the pattern.
After removing the pattern,mould is cured in an
oven and is ready to receive the molten metal
Procedure:
A reusable pattern is placed inside a slightly tapered flask
and a slurry like mixture of refractory aggregate,hydrolzed
ethyl silicate,alcohol and a getting agent is poured on top.
This mixture sets to a rubbery state that permits removal of
the pattern and flask and the mould surface is then ignited
with a torch
During burn off most of the volatiles are consumed and a
three dimensional network of microscropic cracks forms in
the ceramic
The gaps are small enough to prevent metal penetration but
large enough to provide venting of air and gas and to
accommodate both the thermi expansion of the ceramic
particles during the pour and the subsequent shrinkage of
the solidified metal
A subsequent baking operation removes all of the remaining
volatiles, making the mold hard and rigid.
Before pouring the ceramic moulds are often preheated to
ensure proper filling and to control the solidification
characteristics of the metal.
Advantages
High production rates are possible
High dimensional accuracy is achieved
No cores are needed
Complex shapes can be cast
Machining can be eliminated
Expensive tooling restricts the process to long run castings
Process Parameters
Size limits-100 gms-1000 kgs.
Thickness limits-0.13cm-10 maximum
Typical tolerances-0.01 cm-2.5 cm
Draft allowance-1 degree
Surface finish-2-4 microns.
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every
casting
In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused
many times
The processes include:
Basic permanent mold casting
Die casting
Centrifugal casting
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing
Molds used for casting lower melting point
alloys are commonly made of steel or cast iron
Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high pouring
temperatures
Permanent Mold Casting
Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is
preheated and coated
Permanent Mold Casting
Figure 11.10 Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used)
are inserted and mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into
the mold, where it solidifies.
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of permanent mold casting:
Good dimensional control and surface finish
More rapid solidification caused by the cold
metal mold results in a finer grain structure,
so castings are stronger
Limitations:
Generally limited to metals of lower melting
point
Simpler part geometries compared to sand
casting because of need to open the mold
High cost of mold
Applications of Permanent Mold Casting
Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to
high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump
bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and
missiles
Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper‑base alloys, and cast iron
Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which
molten metal is injected into mold cavity under
high pressure
Pressure is maintained during solidification,
then mold is opened and part is removed
Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
Use of high pressure to force metal into die
cavity is what distinguishes this from other
permanent mold processes
Die Casting Machines
Designed to hold and accurately close two
mold halves and keep them closed while liquid
metal is forced into cavity
Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects
liquid metal under high pressure into the die
High production rates - 500 parts per hour not
uncommon
Applications limited to low melting‑point metals
that do not chemically attack plunger and other
mechanical components
Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed
and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Figure 11.13 Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (2) plunger
forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
High production but not usually as fast as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring step
Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use
on low melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (1) with die
closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into
the chamber
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (2) ram forces
metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification.
Molds for Die Casting
Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of die casting:
Economical for large production quantities
Good accuracy and surface finish
Thin sections are possible
Rapid cooling provides small grain size and
good strength to casting
Disadvantages:
Generally limited to metals with low metal
points
Part geometry must allow removal from die
Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
The group includes:
True centrifugal casting
Semicentrifugal casting
Centrifuge casting
True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
In some operations, mold rotation commences
after pouring rather than before
Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
Outside shape of casting can be round,
octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is
(theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially
symmetric forces
True Centrifugal Casting
Figure 11.15 Setup for true centrifugal casting.
Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
Molds are designed with risers at center to
supply feed metal
Density of metal in final casting is greater in
outer sections than at center of rotation
Often used on parts in which center of casting
is machined away, thus eliminating the portion
where quality is lowest
Examples: wheels and pulleys
Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away
from axis of rotation, so that molten metal
poured into mold is distributed to these cavities
by centrifugal force
Used for smaller parts
Radial symmetry of part is not required as in
other centrifugal casting methods
Additional Steps After Solidification
Trimming
Removing the core
Surface cleaning
Inspection
Repair, if required
Heat treatment
Co2 Process
Principle:
A sand molding technique which uses a grain sand which is mixed
with a solution of sodium silicate that acts to bind the sand
particles.Co2 gas is used to harden the mass of sand after the mold
has been made.
H2O+Na2SiO3+CO2=Na2CO3+SiO2(Silica gel/Colloidal state)
Steps involved:
1. Mold material is pure dry Silica,3-5% of sodium silicate liquid base
binder, mixed for 3 to 4 minutes.
2.The mixture is rammed around the pattern in molding box.
3. CO2 gas is forced into mold at about 1.4 to 1.5 Kg/cm2
4. Apply refractory coating and the system is ready for pouring
5. Use either wood or metal pattern.
6. Suitable pressure reducing valves are used to reduce pressure of
gas.
7. Pattern rubbed with graphite before ramming to overcome removal
of pattern from mold.
Advantages:
1.Low raw material cost
2.Fast production rate
3.No core baking equipment's
4.Semiskilled workers are enough
5.Hollow coves can be easily made
6.Easily mechanized.
Disadvantages:
1.Difficult to reclaim the sand
2.Poor collapsibility due to inorganic nature of bond
3.Moisture susceptibility
4.Less suitable for non ferrous casting
Applications:
1.For large cones preparation
2.Heavy or thick welded castings
3.Producing cores of Fe, Al,Cu base alloys.
Stir Casting
Stir Casting
In a stir casting process, the reinforcing phases are distributed
into molten matrix by mechanical stirring. Stir casting of metal
matrix composites was initiated in 1968, when S. Ray
introduced alumina particles into an aluminum melt by stirring
molten aluminum alloys containing the ceramic powders.
Mechanical stirring in the furnace is a key element of this
process. The resultant molten alloy, with ceramic particles, can
then be used for die casting, permanent mold casting, or sand
casting.
Stir casting is suitable for manufacturing composites with up to
30% volume fractions of reinforcement.
The cast composites are sometimes further extruded to reduce
porosity, refine the microstructure, and homogenize the
distribution of the reinforcement.
Stir Casting
A major concern associated with the stir casting process is the segregation of
reinforcing particles which is caused by the surfacing or settling of the
reinforcement particles during the melting and casting processes.
The final distribution of the particles in the solid depends on material
properties and process parameters such as the wetting condition of the
particles with the melt, strength of mixing, relative density, and rate of
solidification.
The distribution of the particles in the molten matrix depends on the geometry
of the mechanical stirrer, stirring parameters, placement of the mechanical
stirrer in the melt, melting temperature, and the characteristics of the particles
added.
Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things to
go wrong in a casting operation, resulting in
quality defects in the product
The defects can be classified as follows:
General defects common to all casting
processes
Defects related to sand casting process
General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun
General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is
a lack of fusion due to premature freezing
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut
General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot
General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze
Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity
Metals for Casting
Most commercial castings are made of alloys
rather than pure metals
Alloys are generally easier to cast, and
properties of product are better
Casting alloys can be classified as:
Ferrous
Nonferrous
