Biological Change

Natural Selection and the

Evidence for Evolution
 What is evolution?
• The modern theory of evolution is a
fundamental concept in biology
• Evolution – change in populations
over time
• Charles Darwin was the first to
publish his ideas of how species
evolve
 Common descent
• The scientific theory that all living
organisms on Earth descended from
a common ancestor.
– The structures and functions of all living organisms are
encoded in the same basic nucleic molecules, DNA and
RNA.
– Similarities in amino acid sequences between various
organisms also suggest common descent
– The fossil record also shows cases in which one plant or
animal type evolved into different types over time.
 Charles Darwin
Began his work in 1831 (age 21) as the
naturalist on the HMS Beagle
As the ship’s naturalist, it was his job to
study and collect biological specimens at
each port along the rout
On the Galapagos Islands, Darwin
studied many species that were unique to
the islands, but similar to species
elsewhere. These observations led him to
consider the possibility that species can
change over time.
Ittook him 22 years to find an
explanation for how species change over
time
 Charles Darwin
• 1859 published On the Origin of
Species
– his theory of natural selection to
explain how organisms evolve
– Darwin developed his ideas while
sailing on the Beagle
 Adaptations: Evidence for
Evolution
• Structural adaptations arise over
time
– Mimicry – where one species resembles
another species
– Camouflage – where a species blends
with their surroundings
• Physiological adaptations arise over
time
– Antibiotic resistance of bacteria
 Other Evidence for
• Fossils
Evolution
• Anatomy
– Homologous structures – structures that are
similar in anatomy but have different function
• Common evolutionary origin
– Analogous structures – body parts similar in
function but have different structure
• No common evolutionary origin
– Vestigial structures – body structure that has no
function in present-day organisms but was probably
useful to an ancestor
• Biochemistry
– DNA, RNA
More Evidence for
Evolution• Embryology
As development
continues from
embryo to a more
mature organism,
the differences
increase, however,
in the earliest
stages of growth
and development,
many vertebrate
embryos are
remarkably similar
Biological Change

Species Change
 Principles of Darwin’s
Theory of Natural Selection
• Variation
• Heritability
• Overproduction
• Reproductive Advantage
 Remember…
The Principles of Darwin’s
Theory
• Overproduction of
offspring
• Variation
• Heritabiltiy
• Reproductive
Advantage
(preferential
selection of traits)
 Species Change

• Organisms that are best matched to

their environment are more likely to
survive and reproduce
• Adaptation – a trait that improves an
organism’s change for survival and
reproduction
 Adaptation
• Individual members of a single
species exhibit differences in their
appearance and function
• Difference result from random
changes in genetic material from
sexual reproduction and mutations
 Natural Selection
• Organisms with traits that help them
survive and reproduce pass their
characteristics to their offspring.
• Helpful traits survive and spread
through the population
• Harmful traits disappear over time
• As a result, a population may evolve
into a new species
Natural Selection

reproduction

Inherited traits Random mutations

Variation

Mismatch with
Adaptations environment

Survival Death; no offspring

 Populations evolve, not
individuals!
• Variation exists among individuals within a
population
• An individual with variations that make
them poorly adapted to the environment
will not survive and reproduce
– Remember genotypes (genes) and phenotypes
(expression of genes)
• Evolution occurs as a population’s genes
and their frequencies change over time
 Natural Selection Acts on
Variation
• Some variations increase or decrease
an organism’s chance of survival in a
particular environment
– Three types
• Stabilizing selection
• Directional selection
• Disruptive selection
 Types of Natural Selection
• Directional selection
– Occurs when individuals at one end on the
frequency distribution are better adapted to
the environment than those in the middle
• Disruptive selection
– Occurs when individuals near the upper and
lower ends of the distribution are better
adapted than those in the middle
• Stabilizing selection
– Occurs when individuals near the center of the
distribution are more fit than individuals at
either end
Disruptive Selection

Stabilizing
Selection

Directional
Selection
 Determine the type of natural
selection indicated by the following
examples.
• Members of a population of Amazon tree frogs
hop from tree to tree searching for food in the
rain forest. They vary in leg length. Events result
in massive destruction of the forest’s trees. After
several generations, only long-legged tree frogs
remain alive.
• Different grass plants in a population range in
length from 8cm to 28 cm. The 8-10 cm grass
blades receive little sunlight, and the 25-28 cm
grass blades are eaten quickly by grazing
animals.
• The spines of sea urchin population’s members
vary in length. The short-spined sea urchins are
camouflaged easily on the seafloor. However,
long-spined sea urchins are well defended against
predators.
 Question
• A population of woodpeckers have beak lengths
ranging from 2cm-4cm. The woodpeckers with 3
cm beaks are able to reach more insects in the
trees in which they feed.
Explain the following:

A.Is longer beak length an advantageous

adaptation?
B. How would you expect the population of
woodpeckers to evolve after a very long period of
time?
C. What type of selection would this be an
example of? Explain your answer.
 Classification of organisms
• Organisms are classified based on
internal and external characteristics
• Species – most specific unit of
classification
 The Evolution of Species
• Speciation – the process of the
evolution of a new species
– Occurs when members of similar
populations no longer interbreed and
produce fertile offspring
 Evolutionary History
• Phylogeny describes the evolutionary
history of a related group of species
• All organisms on Earth evolved from a
single ancestor
• Life on earth began about 3.5 billion years
ago; since that time, new species have
emerged, lived and died out
• New species evolve from pre-existing
species
 Fossil Evidence
• Through fossil evidence, physical and
molecular similarities between
ancient species and modern species
have been found.
• Physical and molecular similarities
between diverse species has also
been found.
Phylogeny of Humans
Phylogeny of Humans
 Extinction
• Organisms try to survive in their
environments through adaptation,
however many species become
extinct
• Extinction can occur because of
environmental changes, human
interference or as a result of failure
to adapt to new conditions
 Extinction Cont.
• Extinction is a natural and important part
of evolution
• It is estimated that 999 of every 1,000
species that have ever lived on Earth have
become extinct
• The average species survives between 2
and 10 million years
• Even the most highly adapted species
become extinct.
 Mass Extinctions
• There have been many mass
extinctions during Earth’s history
• Mass extinction = when more than
50% of species were wiped out
• Mass extinctions make it possible for
new species to develop
• Surviving species are able to
diversify
Biological Change

Identifying change in species

Changes in genetic equilibrium
• Mutations cause genetic change
– Caused by environmental factors such
as radiation, chemicals, or can simply
occur by change
• If a mutation is useful, it persists and
becomes part of the gene pool
• Lethal mutations cause death and
are quickly eliminated from the gene
pool
 Mutations
• Natural Mutations occur at a regular
rate.
• The number of differences between
the genetic material and different
species estimates how long ago two
species share a common ancestry
 Types of Evolution
• Macroevolution: The generation
of major change in the assemblage
of organisms: speciation
• Microevolution: Changes in the
gene pool of a population that
result in changes in allele
frequencies; they arise without the
influence of selection pressure
Mechanisms of Evolution

Populations evolve, not

individuals
 Population Genetics
• When Charles Darwin developed his theory
of natural selection in the 1800’s, he did
so without knowing about genes
• The principles of today’s modern theory of
evolution are rooted in population
genetics.
• Today we refer to the Synthetic Theory
of Evolution, which included the
principled of genetics
 Genes and Populations
• Gene pool: The collection of genes in a population
– Because diploids have only two versions of each
gene, each has only a small fraction of possible
alleles in a population
• Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual at a
given locus, taking into account the two possible alleles
– Genotype frequency is the proportion of a given
genotype in the population
– Allele frequency refers to the proportion of a
particular allele, such as A or a
• Phenotype: the traits of an individual
– Phenotype frequency is the proportion of a given
phenotype in the population
– Phenotype frequency is influenced by the dominance
characteristic of an allele
 Disruption to Genetic
Equilibrium
• Genetic Drift – alteration of allelic
frequencies by chance events
• Can greatly affect small populations
– Ex. Amish of Lancaster County
Pennsylvania – 6 fingers and toes
• Individuals in this community have a 1 in 14
chance of having this mutation
• Individuals in the larger population of the
United States only have a 1 in 1,000 chance
of having the mutation
 Disruption to Genetic
Equilibrium
• Gene flow – the transport of genes by
migrating individuals
– When an individual leaves a population,
it takes its genes with it
– When an individual enters a population,
it introduces new genes
 Alleles and Population
Genetics
• Although individuals are affected by the process
of natural selection, it is the makeup of the
population that is critical for determining the
subsequent generations
• Changes in the gene pool refer to changes in the
frequency of the alleles
• If the allele frequencies in a population do not
undergo change over time, we say that the
population is in genetic equilibrium, the
population is not evolving.
 Population Stability
• The conventional view might be that
dominant alleles would eventually come to
dominate the gene pool, and the
recessives disappear
• They do not necessarily do so; in fact,
allele frequencies change only when
influenced by other factors.
• The stability of populations over time is
explained by the Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium.
 Hardy Weinberg Principle
• This condition can be modeled as the
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium, which
requires:
– Large population size
– No migration
– Random mating
– No net mutations
– All genotypes have similar selective value
• This is idealized and rarely actually occurs,
but is a useful tool
 The Ps and Qs of H&W
• Imagine 2 alleles, A and a
– p is the frequency of A
– q the frequency of a
• So, p + q = 1
• The mathematical equivalent of a random mating can
be given by multiplying this relationship by itself
• Therefore, (p + q)2 = 1 = p2 + 2pq + q2
– p2 = frequency of AA
– 2pq = frequency of Aa
– q2 = frequency of aa
• Given this condition, we can always work out the
frequencies of each allele in a sexual population that is
not evolving.
 H-W: Example
• Remember, since (p + q)2 = 1
• p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
• Let’s say that a population has the following
genotypic and allelic frequencies
• Note how all frequencies add up to 1.0
 A Fun Experiment in Class
• Tongue rolling is described by a simple dominant character, T
and we can study the HW equilibrium using this trait, in this class
1. Find the frequency of homozygous recessives (q2)in the class
– Can you roll your tongue? If so you are either TT or Tt
• Note how many can roll tongues ________
– If not, you are tt
• Note how many cannot roll tongues ________
• Take this number and divide by the class total: ______; this
is the frequency of homozygous recessives (q2).
2. What is the frequency of p?
– Since p + q = 1, then 1 - q = p
– Take the root of q2 from above. ___________
– We can now calculate p. p = 1 - q
 5 Factors Upset Genetic
• Mutation
Equilibrium
• Nonrandom mating
• Genetic Drift
• Gene Flow
• Natural Selection
• All of these are conditions that were required by
the H-W equilibrium to NOT occur
• They cause changes in allelic frequency, and
result in microevolution
• They all occur routinely
 Population Genetics
• Populations evolve not individuals!
– All changes in a population occur at the
gene level
• Variations lead to adaptations
– Adaptations that are beneficial become
more common in the population
• Genotype frequency is the
proportion of a given genotype in
the population
 Things that lead to change in
populations
• Reproductive Barriers
– Sexual selection - male/female choice in
mates
– Reproductive isolation
• Prezygotic isolation
– Geographic Isolation – when a physical barrier
divides a population
– Ecological and behavioral barriers
• Postzygotic isolation
– Hybrid offspring cannot develop or reproduce
 Speciation
• Speciation occurs when a population
diverges, and can no longer breed
and produce viable offspring, often
due to reproductive isolation
– Allopatric speciation – when a physical
barrier divides one population into two or more
populations. The separate populations will
eventually contain organisms that, over time
will no longer be able to breed successfully
– Sympatric speciation – when a species
evolves into a new species without a physical
barrier. Sometimes based on resource
utilization, sometimes caused by polyploidy in
plants.
 Patterns of Evolution
• Adaptive radiation (aka: divergent
evolution)
– results when populations adapting to different
environmental conditions change , becoming less
alike as they adapt, resulting in new species.
– In other words, when an ancestral species evolves
into an array of species to fit a number of diverse
habitats
• Ex. Hawaiian Honeycreepers, Galapagos finches, African
cichlids
• Convergent Evolution – when distantly
related organisms evolve similar traits
– Occurs when unrelated species occupy similar
environments
– Similar environmental pressure  Similar pressures
of natural selection
 Patterns of Evolution
• Coevolution – When the evolution of
one species affects the evolution of
another species.
– Mutualism is a form of coevolution
– Hummingbirds and flowers
– Poisonous newts and the predators that
can eat them
 Speciation can occur quickly or
slowly…
• Gradualism – the idea that species originate
through a gradual change of adaptations
• Punctuated Equilibrium – hypothesis that
speciation occurs relatively quickly, in rapid
bursts, with long periods of genetic
equilibrium in between
– Environmental changes, or introduction of
competitive species can lead to rapid changes
– Happens quickly – in about 10,000 years or less
• Both gradualism and punctuated equilibrium
are supported by fossil evidence