Internetworking,

Internet addressing.
Subnetting. CIDR
Week 11
Internetworking Overview
• Definition:
• Connecting multiple computer networks to form a larger network using routers, gateways,
and protocols.
• Enables communication across diverse systems.
• Key Components:
• Routers: Direct data between networks.
• Protocols: Ensure standard communication (e.g., TCP/IP).
• Gateways: Interface between different systems.
• Advantages:
• Scalability and flexibility.
• Efficient resource sharing.
• Centralized management of interconnected systems.
• Disadvantages:
• Complexity increases with network size.
• Security risks due to interconnectivity.
• Details
• Internetworking is combined of 2 words, inter and networking which implies an association
between totally different nodes or segments. This connection area unit is established through
intercessor devices akin to routers or gateway. The first term for associate degree
internetwork was catenet. This interconnection is often among or between public, private,
commercial, industrial, or governmental networks. Thus, associate degree internetwork could
be an assortment of individual networks, connected by intermediate networking devices, that
function as one giant network. Internetworking refers to the trade, products, and procedures
that meet the challenge of making and administering internet works.
• To enable communication, every individual network node or phase is designed with a similar
protocol or communication logic, that is Transfer Control Protocol (TCP) or Internet Protocol
(IP). Once a network communicates with another network having constant communication
procedures, it’s called Internetworking. Internetworking was designed to resolve the matter of
delivering a packet of information through many links.
• There is a minute difference between extending the network and Internetworking. Merely
exploitation of either a switch or a hub to attach 2 local area networks is an extension of LAN
whereas connecting them via the router is an associate degree example of Internetworking.
Internetworking is enforced in Layer three (Network Layer) of the OSI-ISO model. The
foremost notable example of internetworking is the Internet.
3 units of Internetworking:

• Extranet
• Intranet
• Internet
• Extranet – It’s a network of the internetwork that’s restricted in scope to one organization or entity
however that additionally has restricted connections to the networks of one or a lot of different
sometimes, however not essential. It’s the very lowest level of Internetworking, usually enforced in
an exceedingly personal area. Associate degree extranet may additionally be classified as a Man,
WAN, or different form of network however it cannot encompass one local area network i.e. it
should have a minimum of one reference to associate degree external network.
• Intranet – This associate degree computer network could be a set of interconnected networks,
which exploits the Internet Protocol and uses IP-based tools akin to web browsers and FTP tools,
that are underneath the management of one body entity. That body entity closes the computer
network to the remainder of the planet and permits solely specific users. Most typically, this
network is the internal network of a corporation or different enterprise. An outsized computer
network can usually have its own internet server to supply users with browsable data.
• Internet – A selected Internetworking, consisting of a worldwide interconnection of governmental,
academic, public, and personal networks based mostly upon the Advanced analysis comes Agency
Network (ARPANET) developed by ARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense additionally home to
the World Wide Web (WWW) and cited as the ‘Internet’ to differentiate from all different generic
Internetworks. Participants within the web, or their service suppliers, use IP Addresses obtained
from address registries that manage assignments.
 Internetwork Addressing
• Data Link Layer addresses: A data-link layer address unambiguously identifies every physical network
association of a network device. Data-link addresses typically area units cited as physical or hardware
addresses. Data-link addresses sometimes exist among a flat address area and have a pre-established and
usually fastened relationship to a selected device. End systems usually have just one physical network
association, and therefore have just one data-link address. Routers and different internetworking devices
usually have multiple physical network connections and so eventually have multiple data-link addresses.
• MAC Addresses: Media Access management (MAC) addresses encompass a set of data-link layer addresses.
MAC addresses establish network entities in LANs that implement the IEEE MAC addresses of the data-link
layer. MAC addresses different area units distinctively for every local area network interface. MAC addresses are
forty-eight bits long and are expressed in form of twelve hexadecimal digits. The primary half dozen
hexadecimal digits, which are usually administered by the IEEE, establish the manufacturer or merchant and
therefore comprise the Organizational Unique Identifier (OUI). The last half dozen positional notation digits
comprise the interface serial variety or another price administered by the particular merchant. MAC addresses
are typically area units referred to as burned-in addresses (BIAs) as a result of being burned into read-only
memory(ROM) and are traced into random-access memory (RAM) once the interface card initializes.
• Network-Layer Addresses: Network addresses sometimes exist among a gradable address area and typically
area units referred to as virtual or logical addresses. the connection between a network address and a tool is
logical and unfixed, it usually relies either on physical network characteristics or on groupings that don’t have
any physical basis. finish systems need one network-layer address for every network-layer protocol they
support. Routers and different Internetworking devices need one network-layer address per physical network
association for every network-layer protocol supported.
Challenges to Internetworking
• The initial challenge lies when we are trying to connect numerous
systems to support communication between disparate technologies. For
example, Totally different sites might use different kinds of media, or they
could operate at variable speeds.
• Another essential thought is reliable service that should be maintained in
an internetwork. Individual users and whole organizations depend upon
consistent, reliable access to network resources.
• Network management should give centralized support associate degree
troubleshooting capabilities on the internetwork. Configuration, security,
performance, and different problems should be adequately addressed for
the internetwork to perform swimmingly.
• Flexibility, the ultimate concern, is important for network enlargement
and new applications and services, among different factors.
• Advantages:
• Increased connectivity: Internetworking enables devices on different networks to communicate with each other, which
increases connectivity and enables new applications and services.
• Resource sharing: Internetworking allows devices to share resources across networks, such as printers, servers, and storage
devices. This can reduce costs and improve efficiency by allowing multiple devices to share resources.
• Improved scalability: Internetworking allows networks to be expanded and scaled as needed to accommodate growing
numbers of devices and users.
• Improved collaboration: Internetworking enables teams and individuals to collaborate and work together more effectively,
regardless of their physical location.
• Access to remote resources: Internetworking allows users to access resources and services that are physically located on
remote networks, improving accessibility and flexibility.
• Disadvantages:
• Security risks: Internetworking can create security vulnerabilities and increase the risk of cyberattacks and data breaches.
Connecting multiple networks together increases the number of entry points for attackers, making it more difficult to secure
the entire system.
• Complexity: Internetworking can be complex and requires specialized knowledge and expertise to set up and maintain. This can
increase costs and create additional maintenance overhead.
• Performance issues: Internetworking can lead to performance issues, particularly if networks are not properly optimized and
configured. This can result in slow response times and poor network performance.
• Compatibility issues: Internetworking can lead to compatibility issues, particularly if different networks are using different
protocols or technologies. This can make it difficult to integrate different systems and may require additional resources to
resolve.
• Management overhead: Internetworking can create additional management overhead, particularly if multiple networks are
involved. This can increase costs and require additional resources to manage effectively.
Internet Addressing
• Definition:
Assigning unique identifiers (IP addresses) to devices in a network for communication. All the computers of
the world on the Internet network communicate with each other with underground or underwater cables or
wirelessly. If I want to download a file from the internet or load a web page or literally do anything related to
the internet, my computer must have an address so that other computers can find and locate mine in order
to deliver that particular file or webpage that I am requesting. In technical terms, that address is called IP
Address or Internet Protocol Address.
• Types of IP Addressing:
• IPv4 (e.g., 192.168.0.1):
• 32-bit addresses.
• Limited to ~4.3 billion addresses.
• IPv6 (e.g., 2001:db8::ff00:42:8329):
• 128-bit addresses.
• Offers virtually unlimited address space.
• Advantages:
• Facilitates device identification.
• Supports routing and communication.
• Disadvantages:
• IPv4 limitations (address exhaustion).
• Transition challenges to IPv6.
Working of IP addresses
• Your device directly requests your Internet Service Provider which then
grants your device access to the web.
• And an IP Address is assigned to your device from the given range
available.
• Your internet activity goes through your service provider, and they route
it back to you, using your IP address.
• Your IP address can change. For example, turning your router on or off
can change your IP Address.
• When you are out from your home location your home IP address doesn’t
accompany you. It changes as you change the network of your device.
 Types of IP Address
IPv4: Internet Protocol version 4. It consists of 4 numbers separated by
the dots. Each number can be from 0-255 in decimal numbers. But
computers do not understand decimal numbers, they instead change
them to binary numbers which are only 0 and 1. Therefore, in binary, this
(0-255) range can be written as (00000000 – 11111111). Since each
number N can be represented by a group of 8-digit binary digits. So, a
whole IPv4 binary address can be represented by 32-bits of binary
digits. In IPv4, a unique sequence of bits is assigned to a computer, so a
total of (2^32) devices approximately = 4,294,967,296 can be assigned
with IPv4.
IPv4 can be written as:
189.123.123.90
.
IPv6

• IPv6: But, there is a problem with the IPv4 address. With IPv4, we can connect
only the above number of 4 billion devices uniquely, and apparently, there are
much more devices in the world to be connected to the internet. So, gradually
we are making our way to IPv6 Address which is a 128-bit IP address. In
human-friendly form, IPv6 is written as a group of 8 hexadecimal numbers
separated with colons(:). But in the computer-friendly form, it can be written
as 128 bits of 0s and 1s. Since, a unique sequence of binary digits is given to
computers, smartphones, and other devices to be connected to the internet.
So, via IPv6 a total of (2^128) devices can be assigned with unique addresses
which are actually more than enough for upcoming future generations.
• IPv6 can be written as:
• 2011:0bd9:75c5:0000:0000:6b3e:0170:8394
Classification of IP Address
• 1.Public IP Address: This address is available publicly and it is assigned by your network
provider to your router, which further divides it to your devices. Public IP Addresses are of two
types,
• Dynamic IP Address: When you connect a smartphone or computer to the internet, your
Internet Service Provider provides you an IP Address from the range of available IP Addresses.
Now, your device has an IP Address and you can simply connect your device to the Internet and
send and receive data to and from your device. The very next time when you try to connect to
the internet with the same device, your provider provides you with different IP Addresses to
the same device and also from the same available range. Since IP Address keeps on changing
every time when you connect to the internet, it is called a Dynamic IP Address.
• Static IP Address: Static address never changes. They serve as a permanent internet address.
These are used by DNS servers. What are DNS servers? Actually, these are computers that help
you to open a website on your computer. Static IP Address provides information such as device
is located on which continent, which country, which city, and which Internet Service Provider
provides internet connection to that particular device. Once, we know who is the ISP, we can
trace the location of the device connected to the internet. Static IP Addresses provide less
security than Dynamic IP Addresses because they are easier to track.
Classification of IP Address

• 2.Private IP Address: This is an internal address of your device which are not
routed to the internet and no exchange of data can take place between a private
address and the internet.
• 3. Shared IP addresses: Many websites use shared IP addresses where the traffic
is not huge and very much controllable, they decide to rent it to other similar
websites so to make it cost-friendly. Several companies and email sending
servers use the same IP address (within a single mail server) to cut down the
cost so that they could save for the time the server is idle.
• 4. Dedicated IP addresses: A dedicated IP Address is an address used by a single
company or an individual which gives them certain benefits using a private
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) certificate which is not in the case of a shared IP
address. It allows to access the website or log in via File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
by IP address instead of its domain name. It increases the performance of the
website when the traffic is high. It also protects from a shared IP address that is
black-listed due to spam.
Subnetting

• Definition:
Dividing a larger network into smaller, manageable sub-networks (subnets). A subnet is like
a smaller group within a large network. It is a way to split a large network into smaller
networks so that devices present in one network can transmits data more easily. For
example, in a company, different departments can each have their own subnet, keeping
their data traffic separate from others. Subnet makes the network faster and easier to
manage and also improves the security of the network.
• Why Subnet?
• Optimizes IP address allocation.
• Improves network performance and reduces congestion.
• Enhances security by isolating networks.
• How Subnetting Works:
• Based on Subnet Masks (e.g., 255.255.255.0 or /24).
• Splits the IP address into Network and Host portions.
Why Subnetting Necessary?

• Subnetting helps in organizing the network in an efficient way which

helps in expanding the technology for large firms and companies.
• Subnetting is used for specific staffing structures to reduce traffic and
maintain order and efficiency.
• Subnetting divides domains of the broadcast so that traffic is routed
efficiently, which helps in improving network performance.
• Subnetting is used to increase network security.
Different Parts of IP Address

• An IP address is made up of different parts, each serving a specific purpose in identifying a

device on a network. In an IPv4 address, there are four parts, called “octets,” which are
separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1). Here’s what each part represents:
• Network Portion: The first few sections (octets) of an IP address identify the network that
the device belongs to. This part of the IP address is common among all devices on the same
network, allowing them to communicate with each other and share resources.
• Host Portion: The remaining sections of the IP address specify the individual device, or
“host,” within that network. This part makes each device unique within the network,
allowing the router to distinguish between different devices.
• The 32-bit IP address is divided into sub-classes. These are given below:
• Class A: The network ID is 8 bits long and the host ID is 24 bits long.
• Class B: The network ID is 16 bits long and the host ID is 16 bits long.
• Class C: The network ID is 24 bits long and the host ID is 8 bits long.
What is a Subnet Mask?
• A subnet mask is a 32-bit number used in IP addressing to separate the network portion of an
IP address from the host portion. It helps computers and devices determine which part of an IP address
refers to the network they are present, and which part refers to their specific location or address within
that network.
• Advantages of Subnetting
• It provides security to one network from another network. eg) In an Organisation, the code of the
Developer department must not be accessed by another department.
• It may be possible that a particular subnet might need higher network priority than others. For
example, a Sales department needs to host webcasts or video conferences.
• In the case of Small networks, maintenance is easy.
• Disadvantages of Subnetting
• In the case of a single network, only three steps are required to reach a Process i.e Source Host to
Destination Network, Destination Network to Destination Host, and then Destination Host to Process.
• In the case of a Single Network only two IP addresses are wasted to represent Network Id and
Broadcast address but in the case of Subnetting two IP addresses are wasted for each Subnet.
• The cost of the overall Network also increases. Subnetting requires internal routers, Switches, Hubs,
Bridges, etc. which are very costly.
Subnetting
• Advantages:
• Efficient utilization of IP addresses.
• Better traffic management.
• Increased network security.
• Disadvantages:
• Added complexity in network management.
• Requires proper planning and expertise.
• Example:
• Original network: 192.168.1.0/24.
• Subnets:
• 192.168.1.0/26 (64 hosts).
• 192.168.1.64/26 (64 hosts).
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain
Routing)
• Definition:
A method for allocating IP addresses and routing without relying on fixed classes (A, B, C). Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method
of IP address allocation and IP routing that allows for more efficient use of IP addresses. CIDR is based on the idea that IP addresses can be
allocated and routed based on their network prefix rather than their class, which was the traditional way of IP address allocation.
• CIDR addresses are represented using a slash notation, which specifies the number of bits in the network prefix. For example, an IP address
of 192.168.1.0 with a prefix length of 24 would be represented as 192.168.1.0/24. This notation indicates that the first 24 bits of the IP
address are the network prefix and the remaining 8 bits are the host identifier.

• CIDR Notation:
• Represented as IP address followed by a slash and prefix length (e.g., 192.168.1.0/24).
• Prefix length specifies the number of bits for the network portion.
• Advantages:
• More efficient use of IP addresses.
• Reduces size of routing tables.
• Allows variable-length subnet masking (VLSM).
• Disadvantages:
• Complexity in calculation and understanding.
• Incompatible with outdated systems.
• Example:
• 192.168.0.0/23 covers:
• 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.1.255 (512 addresses).
• Subnetted further:
• 192.168.0.0/24 (256 addresses).
• 192.168.1.0/24 (256 addresses).
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain
Routing)
• Advantages:
• More efficient use of IP addresses.
• Reduces size of routing tables.
• Allows variable-length subnet masking (VLSM).
• Disadvantages:
• Complexity in calculation and understanding.
• Incompatible with outdated systems.
• Example:
• 192.168.0.0/23 covers:
• 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.1.255 (512 addresses).
• Subnetted further:
• 192.168.0.0/24 (256 addresses).
• 192.168.1.0/24 (256 addresses).
Subnetting vs. CIDR
Features Subnetting CDIR

Purpose Divide a network into smaller Optimize IP address allocation

parts and routing

Notation Subnet masks (e.g., CIDR notation (e.g., /24)

255.255.255.0)

Flexibility Less flexible Highly flexible

Efficiency Moderate High

Practical Example

• Scenario:
A company has a block of addresses (192.168.0.0/22). They need:
• Head Office: 400 hosts.
• Branch 1: 100 hosts.
• Branch 2: 50 hosts.
• Steps:
• Allocate subnets using CIDR:
• Head Office: 192.168.0.0/23 (510 addresses).
• Branch 1: 192.168.2.0/25 (126 addresses).
• Branch 2: 192.168.2.128/26 (62 addresses).
• Reserve remaining IPs for future use.
Conclusion

• Internetworking ensures seamless communication across networks.

• IP addressing is foundational for device identification.
• Subnetting and CIDR optimize network efficiency, scalability, and
security.
• Key Takeaways:
• Choose the right approach based on network size and needs.
• Proper planning is crucial for effective implementation.