VERITAS UNIVERSITY, ABUJA

FACULTY OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES

LECTURE NOTE ON GENERAL BIOLOGY I

CODE: BIO 101

DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY

COURSE LECTURER

Dr. Emmanuela Onyinye Ibeh Ogar

 Ecology
The term ecology is derived from the Greek word “oikos meaning home and logos
meaning the study of”. Ecology therefore means the study of an organism in its
natural home.
The study of the relationships between living organisms and their
environment IS TERMED ECOLOGY.

It is important for humanity to understand its environment because we

have the ability to modify the environment through the use of
technology.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOLOGY

• Based on study area

Autecology : It deals with the study of an individual species of
organisms and it’s relation with the environment. It is also called the
Species ecology.

Synecology : It deals with the study of communities, their

composition, their behaviour and relation with the environment. It is
also called as Ecology of communities.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOLOGY

• Based on study Environment or habitat

Aquatic ecology : The study of interaction of organisms in the water
Marine water ecology - Ocean, Deep Sea, Estuary
Freshwater Ecology - Lotic (Running water) – River, Stream, Spring
Lentic (Standing Water) –Pond, Lake.

Terrestrial Ecology : The study of interaction of organisms on land

surfaces.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOLOGY

Based on Advancement in the field of ecology

•Population ecology
• Community ecology
•Ecosystem ecology
•Microbial ecology
•Pollution ecology
 Levels of ECOLOGICAL Organization

This is the organization of the biosphere from the smallest to the broadest level:
They are;
Organism/Species
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Biome
Biosphere
 Organism and population

Species: A group of living organism consisting of similar individuals, capable of

interbreeding.

Population: a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at
the same time, that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Organisms that
aren't in the same population can't have fertile offspring.

A local population could occupy a very small habitat, such as a puddle

Example: Every member of a species of monkey that occupies a large island.
 Community

Organisms do not live randomly scattered through the earth. They live in
communities.
Community = are collections of different species living in the same area at the
same time. Such as a group of Zebra and a group of elephants that live in the same
area of Africa.

At the community level, interactions between organisms can be observed such as;
•Predator/prey
•Consumer/producer
•Competition and cooperation
 Ecosystem

Ecosystem: A community of organisms together with its physical

environment is known as an Ecosystem. An Ecosystem is just the
community plus the abiotic factors in that environment.

Example of an Ecosystem
Zebras and elephants, including all the water, sunlight, soil, and
temperature in that environment, would be called an "ecosystem".
 Biome
Biome is an area of planet that can classified according to the plants and animals
that live in it.

The major types of biomes are; Tundra (coldest), Forest (rain forest, Temperate and
Taiga), Grassland (savannah) and Desert (driest)camel.

\
AIt is defined as a community of various plants and animals that inhabit a
particular type of geographic region of Earth. Biomes are often defined by their
climate, rainfall/water characteristics, elevation, and plant characteristics (leaf
type, spacing, etc).
 Biosphere
Biosphere = The biosphere is defined as the region on, above,
and below the Earth’s surface where organisms live. It includes
all of Earth’s ecosystems .
•The biosphere includes the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere
•The hydrosphere is the combined mass of water found on, under,
and above the surface of the earth.
•The Atmosphere is a protective layer of gases that shelters all
life on Earth, keeping temperatures within a relatively small range
and blocking out harmful rays of sunlight.”
•The lithosphere is the solid outer layer of Earth, comprised of the crust
 Habitat and Niches
Habitat—is the place where particular plants or animals live. Within the habitat,
organisms occupy different niches.

Niche: A niche is the functional role of a species in a community.

Types of habitats: The biosphere has three major types of habitats.

1.Terrestrial Habitat (Land)

Organisms that live and move on land are called terrestrial organisms. The
terrestrial habitat is marked by rapid fluctuations in temperature, moisture and
climate. Life on land is sustained by air, soil temperature, and rainfall. Some
 HABITAT

2. Aquatic Habitats

Organisms which live in water are known as aquatic organisms. They are classified as
freshwater organisms, if they inhabit a river, pond, lake, stream, etc.

Marine organisms are those which live in sea water [marines, Sea].

The well-known aquatic organisms are algae, small animals and fishes.

3 Aerial or Arboreal Habitats

•A number of animals are tree dwelling (arboreal) like monkeys and squirrels. The
organisms that use air (sky) for their activities are known as aerial organisms viz, bats,
birds and insects.
 Relationships and Interactions in an Ecosystem

• The distribution and abundance of organisms is shaped by both biotic and

abiotic factors.
-
The Abiotic components are nonliving chemical and physical factors which
affect the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce such as temperature,
light, water, and nutrients.
-
The Biotic components are living factors such as other organisms that directly or
indirectly affect the environment. Thus, the organisms, their presence, parts,
interaction, and wastes are all biotic factors.
•
 Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

The biotic component of an ecosystem is made up of all the living organisms in it.
These organisms are divided into two main groups according to the way they
feed: Autotrophs and Heterotrophs.

•Autotrophs: These are organisms that are able to use sunlight or chemical
energy to manufacture their own food. Since autotrophs are the only organisms
that can produce food in an ecosystem, they are known as primary food
producers.

Autotrophs include all green plants, some bacteria (Cyanobacteria) and

photosynthetic protists (Brown and Red Algae, Euglena).
 Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

Heterotrophs: These organisms cannot manufacture food. They feed on ready-

made food which comes from the tissues of organisms in their environment.

In an ecosystem, heterotrophs may be consumers or decomposers. They

include all animals, carnivorous plants, fungi and most protists and bacteria.
 Energy Flow in Ecosystems

The sun is the ultimate source of energy for almost all ecosystem. Because green plants makes
their own food from inorganic substances, they are called the producers of all the food in the
ecosystem.

Plants eventually die. Their remains are usually broken down by decomposers (organisms that
acquire their food molecules from dead organic materials).

In the process of extracting energy and nutrients from this material, decomposers release some of
the nutrients back into the ecosystem, where they are again available to producers.

Nutrients are thus cycled through the ecosystem and may be used again and again in the
 Energy Flow in Ecosystems
 Energy, by contrast, is not cycled but is continuously lost from an ecosystem.

 As energy is not recycled, energy must consistently be captured by producers.

This energy is then passed on to the organisms that eat the producers.
 Most ecosystem also contain consumers (animals and other organisms that eat
plants or each other). These may die and pass directly to the decomposers, or they
may be eaten by carnivores, also called secondary consumers.
 Consumers and decomposers are heterotrophs, feeding on organic matter
produced by other organisms.
 Food Relationship

All living organisms must obtain energy and nutrients from their environment in order
to remain alive. This is seen through their feeding pathway/food relationship.

The feeding pathway in nature follows a certain pattern;

•It begins with a primary producer

•The primary producer is eaten by a primary consumer

•The primary consumer is eaten by a secondary consumer

•The secondary consumer is consumed by the tertiary consumer

•The decomposers convert the remains of dead producers and consumers into simple
in-organic substances which returns to the environment.
 Trophic level
In an ecosystem, energy and nutrients are transferred step by step among organisms
along a feeding pathway. For example, in a grassland ecosystem, a lion eats a zebra,
that ate grass, that manufactured its own food by converting sunlight into chemical
energy.

•Each step along a feeding pathway is known as trophic level. The feeding
positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels.
•Many consumers feed at more than one trophic level. Humans, for example, are
primary consumers when they eat plants such as vegetables. They are secondary
consumers when they eat cows. They are tertiary consumers when they eat snake.
 Trophic level
• Energy is passed from organisms at one trophic level or energy level to organisms
in the next trophic level.
• Energy is passed up a food chain or web from lower to higher trophic levels. Most
of the energy at a trophic level – about 90% – is used at that trophic level.
Organisms need it for locomotion, heating themselves, and reproduction.

• So, animals at the second trophic level have only about 10% as much energy
available to them as do organisms at the first trophic level. Animals at the third
level have only 1% as much available to them as those at the second level.
 Trophic Level Where It Gets Food Example

1st Trophic Level: Producer Makes its own food Plants make food

2nd Trophic Level: Primary Consumes producers Mice eat plant seeds
Consumer

3rd Trophic Level: Secondary Consumes primary Snakes eat mice

Consumer consumers

4th Trophic Level: Tertiary Consumes secondary Hawks eat snakes

Consumer consumers
 Food Chains and Food Webs

• Food chains and food webs are diagrams that represent the feeding relationships from producers
to consumers to decomposers. They show who eats whom. In this way, they model how energy
and matter move through ecosystems.

Food Chains

• A food chain represents a single pathway through which energy flow through an ecosystem. It
shows the transfer of energy and nutrients from organisms to organisms in a pathway.
Producers use energy from the sun to make food and therefore start the chain

• The arrows represent the direction of energy flow, pointing from the organism
being consumed to the organism receiving the energy

• Decomposers may feed on organisms at any stage of the food chain.

Decomposers recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem.
At each level of a food chain, a lot of energy is lost. Only about ten percent of the
energy passes to the next level. Where does that energy go? Some energy is given off as
heat. Some energy goes into animal wastes.
A food web represents multiple pathways through which energy and matter flow through
an ecosystem. It includes many intersecting food chains. It demonstrates that most
organisms eat, and are eaten, by more than one species.
 Energy Pyramid

• Energy Pyramid is a diagram that shows the relative amounts of

energy located within each trophic level

• Most of the energy in an energy pyramid is used or lost as heat

energy as it moves up the pyramid, therefore each level in an
energy pyramid has less energy available to it than the level
below (only about 10% of the energy produced at each level is
available to the one above it)
• Producers are the foundation of all pyramids
ENERGY PYRAMID
 Symbiosis

 Symbiosis is the interaction between individuals of different

biological species.
 One of the organisms receive a benefit from the interaction, the
other can either receive a benefit, be harmed, or not be affected
in any way .
 Three main kinds of symbiotic relationships: commensalism,
mutualism, and parasitism
 SYMBIOSIS

In mutualism, both the involved organisms benefit from each other. Example –
Coral reefs are nothing but a mutualistic association between coral organisms and
various types of algae residing inside them.
In commensalism, only one organism benefits, while the other is neither
benefited nor harmed. Example – Hermit crabs use gastropod shells to protect
their bodies.
In parasitism, one organism is benefited while the other organism is harmed.
Example – Liver fluke attaches itself to the liver and makes its way to the tissue
and bile.
 SYMBIOSIS CHART
INTERACTION SPECIES A SPECIES B
Commensalism Receives benefits Not Affected

Mutualism Receives benefits Receives benefits

Parasitism Receives benefits Harmed

Amensalism No benefit Harmed

 Other Relationships

• Amensalism: this is a type of biological interaction where one species causes

harm to another organism without any benefit to itself. Example: When cattle trample
on grass, the grass is crushed. However, the cattle do not benefit from this action nor is harmed in the
process.

Modes of Amensalism: There are two modes of amensalism;

 Competition:two organisms compete for the same resources such as food, water,
shelter, space, mate. A larger organism deprives a smaller, weaker organism of food or space.
Example: When a goat feeds on the same type of shrub as a beetle. The goat is unharmed when it
consumes the shrub, however, the beetle loses significant quantities of food and may accidentally be
eaten by the goat. This mode of amensalism is called competition.
Some higher plants secrete substances that inhibit the growth of—or kill—nearby competing plants.
 Other Relationships

 Antibiosis: An organism is either damaged or killed by a chemical secretion of another

organism. Example:
 An example of antibiosis is the interaction between Penicillium and bacteria. The mould
Penicillium creates the secretion known as penicillin, which is extremely toxic to bacteria.
This finding formed the basis for antibiotic called penicillin.

•  Predator/Prey: predator hunts, kills, and eats prey

•  Cooperation: an interaction where organisms work together, ex. wolf packs
 Population Ecology (The study of

population)
Each group of organisms of the same species living in the same area forms a population. Population ecology is the branch
of ecology that studies the structures of populations and how they change. In population studies of a habitat, we investigate
the following;

i. The types of organisms that are present;

ii. The dominant species and

iii. The characteristic features of each population

 Types of organisms

 This is a qualitative study which lists all the various types of populations that are found in the habitat.

 Dominant species

 In any community, one or a few species are dominant over the others in numbers or size or both. These dominant species
often exert a great influence on the habitat.
  Population characteristics

 These include population size, frequency, density, percentage cover and distribution.

 Size: population size is important as it affects the survival of a given species in a habitat. A small population
may easily be wiped away by events such as fires, diseases, e.t.c. A large population stands a better chance of
surviving dangers.

 Density: this is the average number of individuals of a species per unit area of the habitat. It is used to estimate
the total number of individuals in a population. Density = population size/area of habitat

 Frequency: the frequency of any species is simply how often the species occurs at different sites in its habitat.

 Percentage cover: this is the area of ground covered or occupied by a given species in its habitat.

 Distribution: this is the way in which individuals of a particular population are arranged in a given habitat.
Generally, the individuals may be clumped, evenly spaced or randomly spaced.
 Conducting population studies
 Population of a place is always changing be it that of plants and animals. It is therefore very difficult to count the number or estimate the
population of organisms in a given habitat by counting them one by one. In order to eliminate this difficulty, a method known
as SAMPLING is used.
 In the case of very small organisms, slow movers, plants or other non-mobile organisms, scientists use what is
called a quadrat
 Quadrat is a rectangular or square frame made from thick wire. The quadrat is thrown at random several times into a measured plot of land
and at each landing, the area covered by it is noted. The plants and animals enclosed at each throw is noted and their numbers recorded, the
average number of times each species appeared is calculated and the most frequent or dominant species is then determined.
To determine the density of a particular species in a habitat, the following steps are taken:

a. Frequency of an organism: this is the total number of times an organism occurs in all the quadrat’s throws (say for instance 100 times)

b. Number of tosses/throws, say 20 times

 Therefore, average number of organisms per quadrat toss

 = frequency/number of tosses
 i.e 100/20= 5
 If the area of habitat is 1.00m2
 How Population Size and Density Are
Calculated
 Population density = average frequency/area of habitat
 = 5/1= 5perm2

 Transect method
 In this method, a measuring tape which has been marked at convenient intervals is stretched across the area. The plants encountered
at the interval marks are recorded. This is repeated a few times. A fairly accurate estimate of the number and types of plants in the
area can be made using this method.

 Capture and recapture: Obviously a quadrat would not work for animals
that move a round a great deal. So to determine the population size of more
mobile organisms, the mark and recapture method is used.
 Here, individual animals are captured and then marked with a paint or
something similar. The animal is released back into its environment.
 Then at a later date, another set of animals is captured, and that set may
include those already marked, as well as unmarked animals.
 Capture and recapture:

Animals of the same species in an area are caught, counted (A1), marked and
released. The next day the same number of animals are caught (A2) and recorded.
At the same time the number of marked animals (A3) from the previous day, that
were found in this sample are also counted and recorded. The population of
animals present in the area is found by the formula:
Population=A1* A2/A3
Assuming 200 Tilapia fish (A1) are captured in a pond
The next day 200 Tilapia fish (A2) were also caught. This 200 fishes included 40
that were marked on the first day, i.e A3=40
The total number of Tilapia fish population is 200x200/40= 1000
 Some instruments used in investigating animal life
 Butterfly/sweep net: This is made of mosquito net and used to skim the surface of the water for collecting surface specimens.
Flying insects such as butterfly can also be captured with this net.

 Traps: Commercial traps are used in capturing many animals including small mammals and nocturnal animals. Attractive baits are
included when setting such traps.

 Tullgren funnel: This is fitted with wire gauze for collecting soil organisms from soil samples. The soil sample is placed on the
gauze and heated by lighted bulb. As the animals move away from the heat, they drop into the container of alcohol below the funnel
and are collected.

 Plankton net: This is made of fine cloth/net with fine mesh for collecting tiny organisms/planktons from aquatic habitats e.g pool,
pond, lakes, streams, seas etc. The net is slowly trailed in water. Plankton accumulates at its tip as the water is filtered.

 Fish trap: Has two large opening which tappers towards the center. Fishes that get in, swim towards the center and are trapped.

 Pooter: Is used to collect small insects, spider and other invertebrates from leaf litter, tree trunks and crevices of rocks and wall
surfaces. This can be used by pointing the collecting tube towards tree trunks/rock. Then suck through the mouth piece.
 CARRYING CAPACITY
Because the real world does not offer unlimited resources, the
number of individuals in a growing population eventually will reach
a point when resources become scarcer. Then the growth rate will
slow and level off.

Once a population reaches this leveling-off point, it is considered

the greatest population the environment can sustain. The term for
this phenomenon is carrying capacity. The letter K represents
carrying capacity.

What is carrying capacity? The carrying capacity of a biological species refers to

the maximum number of individuals (of that species) that the environment can
carry and sustain.
FACTORS THAT AFFECTS POPULATION SIZE
FACTORS THAT AFFECTS POPULATION SIZE
FACTORS THAT AFFECTS POPULATION SIZE
FACTORS THAT AFFECTS POPULATION SIZE
 What is a Biogeochemical Cycle?
 Biogeochemical cycles refers to the movement and
transformation of chemical elements and compounds
between living organisms and non living parts of an
ecosystem, the atmosphere and the earth’s crust.
 The term biogeochemical is derived from “bio” meaning
biosphere, “geo” meaning the geological components and
“chemical” meaning the elements that move through a cycle.

 The earth obtains energy from the sun which is radiated back
as heat, rest all other elements are present in a closed system.
The major elements include:
 Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulphur,
water
 Biogeochemical Cycle
Water Cycle: The water from the different water bodies evaporates, cools,
condenses and falls back to the earth as rain. This biogeochemical cycle is
responsible for maintaining weather conditions. The water in its various forms
interacts with the surroundings and changes the temperature and pressure of
the atmosphere.

Carbon Cycle: It is one of the biogeochemical cycles in which carbon is

exchanged. All green plants use carbon dioxide and sunlight for photosynthesis.
Carbon is thus stored in the plant. The green plants, when dead, are buried into
the soil that gets converted into fossil fuels made from carbon. These fossil
fuels when burnt, release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Also, the animals that consume plants, obtain the carbon stored in the plants.
This carbon is returned to the atmosphere when these animals decompose after
death. The carbon also returns to the environment through cellular respiration
by animals.
 Biogeochemical Cycle
 Huge carbon content in the form of carbon dioxide is produced that is stored in
the form of fossil fuel (coal & oil) and can be extracted for various commercial
and non-commercial purposes. When factories use these fuels, the carbon is
again released back in the atmosphere during combustion.

Nitrogen Cycle: Here, nitrogen is converted into several forms and it gets
circulated through the atmosphere and various ecosystems.
The nitrogen in the atmosphere is fixed by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria present in
the root nodules of the leguminous plants and made available to the soil and
plants.
 The bacteria present in the roots of the plants convert this nitrogen gas into a
usable compound called ammonia. Ammonia is also supplied to plants in the form
of fertilizers. This ammonia is converted into nitrites and nitrates. The denitrifying
bacteria reduce the nitrates into nitrogen and return it into the atmosphere.
 Natural Environmental Impacts
  Volcanoes: release of greenhouse gases can increase global
temperature.
  Fire: fires can be beneficial through clearing out areas for new plants to
grow, or they can be harmful to animals through decreasing food sources
and increasing erosion
  Plants: plants has multiple benefits to the Earth, including preventing
erosion and improving air/soil quality
Human Environmental Impacts
  Human activities can change the balance in Earth's processes; careless
human activity can also alter or destroy habitats and damage ecosystems
  Humans hurt the Earth through pollution, resource use, and introduction
of invasive species
  Humans can also help the Earth through conservation and preservation
 HEREDITY
 In the simplest of words, heredity refers to the passing of traits or characteristics through
genes from one generation (parent) to the other generation (offspring).
 Basic terms in Heredity
 A few key genetics terms are particularly useful when talking about inheritance:
 ✓ Genes: Defined as factors that control traits. GENES ARE SECTIONS OF DNA
WHICH CODES FOR A SPECIFIC TRAITS (e.g eye colour, height, e.t.c).

 ✓ Alleles: Different forms of the same gene are called alleles; more like different flavor or
varieties. The gene that controls pea plant height has two variations, or alleles — one for
tallness and one for shortness. For example, if coca-cola is the gene, the varieties will be diet
coke, classic coke, e.t.c.
 HEREDITY
Genes specifies which traits, alleles specify what form gene takes

Homozygous – Each organism has two alleles for every gene (Each chromosome has one each).
In homozygous, both the alleles are same. For Example, “TT” is the homozygous expression for
tallness trait.

Heterozygous – If the two alleles are different from each other, then they are heterozygous in
nature. For Example, “Tt” is the heterozygous expression for tallness trait.

Chromosomes – These are thread-like structures made up of nucleic acids (DNA) and proteins.
They are mostly found in the nucleus of the cells. They carry the hereditary or genetic
information in the form of genes.

 HEREDITY
 ✓ Loci: These are the locations on a chromosome where genes are found. Each gene is
located at a specific place, or locus, on its chromosome.
 ✓ Genotype: The combination of alleles that an organism has is its genotype. An organism
genetic information. BB or Bb or bb
 ✓ Phenotype: The appearance of an organism’s traits is its phenotype. The physical
expression of gene.
 Gregor Mendel- The Father of Genetics
 Gregor Mendel, also known as the Father of Genetics, conducted immense research and
studies on this inheritance of traits.
 HEREDITY
 He researched on plant breeding and conducted his experiments on pea plants to show the
inheritance of traits in living organisms.

 He observed the pattern of inheritance from one generation to the other in these plants. And
thus he came up with Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance, which can be summarized under the
following headings:

Law of Dominance: hybrid offspring will only inherit the dominant trait in the phenotype.

Law of Segregation: states that every individual possesses two alleles and only one allele is
passes on to the offspring.

Principle of Independent Assortment: states that the inheritance of one pair of genes is
independent of inheritance of another pair.
 Monohybrid Cross
 It is the cross between two organisms that have one pair of contrasting characters, for example, a cross between a tall
pea plant (TT) and a short (dwarf) plant (tt).


 Observations & Conclusion


In the first generation (F1), the progeny were tall. There was no medium height plant.


In the second generation (F2), 1/4 th of the offspring were short and 3⁄4 were tall.


The Phenotypic ratio in F2 – 3: 1 (3 tall: 1 short)


The Genotypic ratio in F2 – 1: 2: 1 – (TT: Tt: tt)


For a plant to be tall, a single copy of “T” is enough. But if a plant has to be short, both the copies should be “t”


In Tt, ‘T’ is expressed and ‘t’ is suppressed. Hence, the characters ‘T’ is the dominant trait and ‘t’ is the recessive trait.

 Dihybrid Cross
It is the cross between two pairs of contrasting characters. This takes into consideration
alternative traits of two different characters. For example, a cross between one pea plant with
round and green seeds and the other pea plant having wrinkled and yellow seeds.
Consider this cross
A pea plant that is heterozygous for round, yellow seeds is self-fertilized, what are the
phenotypic ratios of the resulting offspring?
Step 1: Determine the parental genotypes from the text above, the word "heterozygous" is the
most important clue, and you would also need to understand that self-fertilized means you just
cross it with itself.
RrYy x RrYy
 Dihybrid Cross

 Step 2: Determine the gametes. Combine the R's and Ys of each parent to represent sperm
and egg. Do this for both parents

 Gametes after "FOIL"

 RY, Ry, rY, ry (parent 1) and RY, Ry, rY, ry (parent 2)
 DIHYBRID CROSS
Step 3: Set up a large 4x4 Punnet square, place one gamete set from the parent on
the top, and the other on the side

Step 4: Write the genotypes of the offspring in each box and determine how many
of each phenotype you have. In this case, you will have 9 round, yellow; 3 round,
green; 3 wrinkled, yellow; and 1 wrinkled green.
 VARIATION
Variation occurs due to some errors in DNA copying. Variation is important because it
contributes to the evolution and forms the basis of heredity.

How Sexual Reproduction Creates Genetic Variation

Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation in offspring, which in turn increases the genetic
variability in species. You can see the effects of this genetic variability if you look at the
children in a large family and note how each person is unique.
Mutations

Exposure of cells to mutagens (environmental agents, such as X-rays and certain chemicals,
that cause changes in DNA) can increase the number of mutations that occur in cells. When
changes occur in a cell that produces gametes, future generations are affected.
 VARIATION
Crossing-over
When homologous chromosomes come together during prophase I of meiosis, they exchange
bits of DNA with each other. This crossing-over results in new gene combinations and new
chances for variety. Crossing-over is one way of explaining how a person can have red hair from
his mother’s father and a prominent chin from his mother’s mother.
Independent assortment

Independent assortment occurs when homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase I of

meiosis. When the homologous pairs of chromosome line up in metaphase I, each pair lines up
independently from the other pairs. So, the way the pairs are oriented during meiosis in one cell
is different from the way they’re oriented in another cell.
 VARIATION
 Fertilization

 Fertilization presents yet another opportunity for genetic variability. Imagine millions of
genetically different sperm swimming toward an egg. Fertilization is random, so the sperm that
wins the race in one fertilization event is going to be different than the sperm that wins the next
race. And, of course, each egg is genetically different too. So, fertilization produces random
combinations of genetically diverse sperm and eggs, creating unlimited possibilities for variation.
 Non-disjunction

 Mistakes may occur during meiosis that results in non-disjunction. This is the failure of
replicated chromosomes to separate during meiosis. Some of the resulting gametes will be
missing a chromosome, while others will have an extra copy of the chromosome. If such gametes
are fertilized and form zygotes, they usually do not survive. If they do survive, the individuals are
likely to have serious genetic disorders.