Chapter III

Understanding the Basics: Object oriented

concepts

1
 Chapter
 Outline
OO concepts from structured point of
view
 Abstraction,
 Encapsulation and information hiding
 inheritance
 Association
 Aggregation
 Collaboration
 Persistence
 Coupling
 Cohesion
 polymorphism
 Interfaces
 components
 Patterns
 Object-Oriented
Analysis
 Object–Oriented Analysis (OOA) is the procedure of identifying software
engineering requirements and developing software specifications in terms of a
software system’s object model, which encompasses of interacting objects.
 The main difference between object-oriented analysis and other forms of analysis is
that in object-oriented approach, requirements are organized around objects, which
integrate both data and functions.
 They are modelled after real-world objects that the system interacts with.
 In traditional analysis methodologies, the two aspects functions and data - are
considered separately.
 Grady Booch has defined OOA as, “Object-oriented analysis is a method of
analysis that examines requirements from the perspective of the classes and
objects found in the vocabulary of the problem domain”.
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The primary tasks in object-oriented analysis (OOA) are:
 Identifying objects
 Organizing the objects by creating object model diagram
 Defining the internals of the objects, or object attributes
 Defining the behavior of the objects, i.e., object actions
 Describing how the objects interact
The common models used in OOA are use cases and object models.
 Object-Oriented
Design
 Object–Oriented Design (OOD) involves implementation of the conceptual
model produced during object-oriented analysis.
 In OOD, concepts in the analysis model, which are Technology independent,
are
mapped onto implementing classes, constraints are identified and interfaces
are designed, resulting in a model for the solution domain, i.e., a detailed
description of how the system is to be built on concrete technologies.
 The implementation details generally include:
 Restructuring the class data (if necessary),
 Implementation of methods, i.e., internal data structures and algorithms,
 Implementation of control, and
 Implementation of associations.
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 Object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD) is a software engineering
approach that models a system as a group of interacting objects.
 Each object represents some entity of interest in the system being modeled,
and is characterized by its class, its state (data elements), and its behavior.
 Various models can be created to show the static structure, dynamic
behavior, and run-time deployment of these collaborating objects.
 There are a number of different notations for representing these models,
one such model is Unified Modeling Language (UML).
 Object-Oriented
Programming
 Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based upon objects (having both data
and methods) that aims to incorporate the advantages of modularity and reusability.

 Objects, which are usually instances of classes, are used to interact with one another to design

applications and computer programs.

 The important features of object oriented programming are:
 Bottom up approach in program design
 Programs organized around objects, grouped in classes
 Focus on data with methods to operate upon object’s data
 Interaction between objects through functions
 Reusability of design through creation of new classes by adding features to existing
 Classes Some examples of object-oriented programming languages are C++, Java, C#, Perl,
Python, Ruby, and PHP.
 The object
model
Object oriented development offers a different model from the traditional software
development approach, which is based on functions and procedures.
 An Object-Oriented environment, software is a collection of discrete objects that encapsulate their data
and the functionality to model real world “Objects”.
 Object are defined, it will perform their desired functions and seal them off in our mind like black
boxes.
 The object- Oriented life cycle encourages a view of the world as a system of cooperative and
collaborating agents.
 An objective orientation producers system that are easier evolve, move flexible more robust, and
more reusable than a top-down structure approach.
 An object orientation allows working at a higher level of abstraction.
 It provides a seamless transition among different phases of software development.
 It encourages good development practices.
 It promotes reusability.
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 The object model visualizes the elements in a software application in terms of objects.
The basic concepts and terminologies of object–oriented
systems. Objects and Classes
 The concepts of objects and classes are intrinsically linked with each other and form
the foundation of object–oriented paradigm.
 Object An object is a real-world element in an object–oriented environment that may have
a
physical or a conceptual existence. Each object has:
 Identity that distinguishes it from other objects in the system.
 State that determines the characteristic properties of an object as well as the values of
the properties that the object holds.
 Behavior that represents externally visible activities performed by an object
in terms of changes in its state.
 Clas
 s having same characteristic properties that
A class represents a collection of objects
exhibit common behavior.
 It gives the blueprint or description of the objects that can be created from it.

 Creation of an object as a member of a class is called instantiation. Thus, object is an

instance of a class.
 The constituents of a class are:

 A set of attributes for the objects that are to be instantiated from the class.
 Generally, different objects of a class have some difference in the values of
the
attributes.
 Attributes are often referred to as class data.
 A set of operations that represent the behavior of the objects of the class.
 Operations are also referred to as functions ormethods
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 E.g., Let us consider a simple class, Circle, that represents the geometrical figure
circle
in a two– dimensional space. The attributes of this class can be identified as
follows:
 x–coord, to denote x–coordinate of the center
 y–coord, to denote y–coordinate of the center a, to denote the radius of the circle

 Some of its operations can be defined as follows:

 findArea(), method to calculate area
 findCircumference(), method to calculate circumference
 scale(), method to increase or decrease the radius

 During instantiation, values are assigned for at least some of the attributes. If
depict its
we create an object my_circle, we can assign values like x-coord : 2, y-coord :
 Encapsulation and Data
Hiding
Encapsulation
 It is the process of binding both attributes and methods together within a class.

 Through encapsulation, the internal details of a class can be hidden from outside.

 It permits the elements of the class to be accessed from outside only through
the interface provided by the class.

Data Hiding
 Typically, a class is designed such that its data (attributes) can be accessed only by
its class methods and insulated from direct outside access.
 This process of protecting an object’s data is called data hiding or information
hiding.
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 Example
 In the class Circle, data hiding can be incorporated by making attributes invisible
from
outside the class and adding two more methods to the class for accessing class
data, namely:
 setValues(), method to assign values to x-coord, y-coord, and a
 getValues(), method to retrieve values of x-coord, y-coord, and a
 Here the private data of the object my_circle cannot be accessed directly by any
method that is not encapsulated within the class Circle.
 It should instead be accessed through the methods setValues() and getValues().
 Message Passing

 Any application requires a number of objects interacting in a harmonious manner.

 Objects in a system may communicate with each other using message
passing. Suppose a system has two objects: obj1 and obj2.
 The object obj1 sends a message to object obj2, if obj1 wants obj2 to execute one
of its methods.
 The features of message passing are:
 Message passing between two objects is generally unidirectional.
 Message passing enables all interactions between objects.
 Message passing essentially involves invoking class methods.
 Objects in different processes can be involved in message passing.
 Inheritance
 Inheritance is the mechanism that permits new classes to be created out of
existing classes by extending and refining its capabilities.
 The existing classes are called the base classes/parent

 classes/super-classes, and the new classes are called the derived classes/
child classes/subclasses.
 The subclass can inherit or derive the attributes and methods of the super-
class(es) provided that the super-class allows so.
 Besides, the subclass may add its own attributes and methods and may modify
any of the super-class methods. Inheritance defines an “is – a” relationship.
 E.g., From a class Mammal, a number of classes can be derived such as Human,
Cat,
Dog, Cow,
Types of inheritance: The following are the types
inheritance
 Single Inheritance : A subclass derives from a single super-class.

 Multiple Inheritance : A subclass derives from more than one super-classes.

 Multilevel Inheritance : A subclass derives from a super-class which in turn is

derived from another class and so on.
 Hierarchical Inheritance : A class has a number of subclasses each of which may
have subsequent subclasses, continuing for a number of levels, so as to form a tree
structure.
 Hybrid Inheritance : A combination of multiple and multilevel inheritance. So, as
to
form a lattice structure.
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 Generalization and
Specialization
 Generalization and specialization represent a hierarchy of relationships
between classes, where subclasses inherit from super-classes.
Generalization: In the generalization process, the common characteristics of classes are
combined to form a class in a higher level of hierarchy, i.e., subclasses are combined
to form a generalized superclass.
It represents an “is – a – kind – of” relationship. For example, “car is a kind of land

vehicle”, or “ship is a kind of water vehicle”.

Specialization: Specialization is the reverse process of generalization.
 Here, the distinguishing features groups of objects are used to form
specialized
of classes from existing classes.
 It can be said that the subclasses
are the specialized versions of the
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 Links and
Association
Link: it represents a connection through which an object collaborates with other
objects.
 It is a physical or conceptual connection between objects.
 Through a link, one object may invoke the methods or navigate through another
object.
 A link depicts the relationship between two or more objects.

Association: Association is a groupof links having common structureand

common behavior.
Association depicts the relationship between objects of one or more classes.
 A link can be defined as an instance of an association.
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 Degree of an Association : Degree of an association denotes the number of
classes involved in a connection. Degree may be unary, binary, or ternary.
 A unary relationship connects objects of the same class.
 A binary relationship connects objects of two classes.
A ternary relationship connects objects of three or more
classes Cardinality Ratios of Associations
 Cardinality of a binary association denotes the number of
instances participating in an
 association. There are three types of cardinality ratios, namely:
 One–to–One : A single object of class A is associated with a single
object of class B.
 One–to–Many : A single object of class A is associated with many
objects
and B.object of class B may be associated with many objects of class A
of classan
conversely
 Aggregation or
Composition
 Aggregation or composition is a relationship among classes by which Aggregation
or Composition class can be made up of any combination of objects of other
classes.
 It allows objects to be placed directly within the body of other classes.
 Aggregation is referred as a “part–of” or “has–a” relationship, with the ability
to navigate from the whole to its parts.
 An aggregate object is an object that is composed of one or more other objects.
 E.g., In the relationship, “a car has–a motor”, car is the whole object or the
aggregate, and the motor is a “part–of” the car.
 Aggregation may denote:
 Physical containment: Example, a computer is composed
 Conceptual containment: Example, Shareholder has–a share.
of monitor, CPU, mouse, keyboard, and so on.
 Benefits of Object
Model
 Now that we have gone through the core concepts pertaining to object orientation,
it
would be worthwhile to note the advantages that this model has to offer.
 The benefits of using the object model are:
1. It helps in faster development of software.
2. It is easy to maintain. Suppose a module develops an error, then a programmer can
fix that particular module, while the other parts of the software are still up and
running.
3. It supports relatively hassle -free upgrades.
4. It enables reuse of objects, designs, and functions.
5. It reduces development risks, particularly in integration of complex systems..
 Object-Oriented
Principles
Principles of Object-Oriented Systems
 The conceptual framework of object–oriented systems is based upon the object
model.
 There are two categories of elements in an object-oriented system:
I. Major Elements:
By major, it is meant that if a model does not have any one of these elements, it stops
to be object oriented.
The four major elements are:
 Abstraction
 Encapsulation
 Modularity
 Hierarchy
 Object-Oriented
Principles
II. Minor Elements:

 By minor, it is meant that these elements are useful, but not crucial part of

the object model.

 The three minor elements are:
 Typing
 Concurrency
 Persistence
 Abstraction

 Abstraction means to focus on the essential features of an element or object in

OOP,
ignoring its extraneous properties.
 The essential features are relative to the context in which the object is being used.
 Grady Booch has defined abstraction as follows: “An abstraction denotes the
essential characteristics of an object that distinguish it from all other kinds of
objects, relative to the perspective of the viewer.”
 E.g., When a class Student is designed, the attributes enrolment_number, name,
course, and address are included while characteristics.
 like pulse rate and size of shoe are eliminated, since they are irrelevant in
the
perspective of the educational institution.
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 Encapsulation is the process of binding both attributes and methods together
within a class.
 Through encapsulation, the internal details of a class can be hidden from outside.

Modularity: is the process of decomposing a problem (program) into a set of modules so

as to reduce the overall complexity of the problem.

Booch has defined modularity as: “Modularity is the property of a system that has
been decomposed into a set of cohesive and loosely coupled modules.”
 Modularity is essentially linked with encapsulation.

 Modularity can be visualized as a way of mapping encapsulated abstractions

into real, physical modules having high cohesion within the modules and their
inter–module
interaction or coupling is
 Abstraction vs
Encapsulation
Abstraction Encapsulation

Abstraction in OOP solves the

Encapsulation solves the issues at
issues at the design level.
implementation level.

Abstraction in Programming is
Encapsulation means binding the code
about hiding unwanted details
and data into a single unit.
while showing most essential
information.

Data Abstraction in Java allows Encapsulation means hiding the internal

focusing on what the details or mechanics of how an object
information object must contain does something for security reasons.
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Hierarchy
 In Grady Booch’s words, “Hierarchy is the ranking or ordering of
abstraction”.
 Through hierarchy, a system can be made up of interrelated subsystems, which
can have their own subsystems and so on until the smallest level
components are reached.
 It uses the principle of “divide and conquer”.

 Hierarchy allows code reusability.

 The two types of hierarchies in OOA are:

I. IS–A” hierarchy: It defines the hierarchical relationship in inheritance,

whereby from subclasses
a super-class, a number of subclasses may be derived which
and so
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. from a class Flower, we can say that
 For example, if we develop a class Rose rose “is–a”
a flower.

II. “PART–OF” hierarchy : It defines the hierarchical relationship in aggregation by which a

class may be composed of other classes.
 For example, a computer system is composed ofhardware and software. It can be said
that a software is a “part–of” computer.

Persistence: An object occupies a memory space and exists for a particular period of time.
 In traditional programming, the lifespan of an object was typically the lifespan of the
execution of the program that created it.
 In files or databases, the object lifespan is longer than the duration of the process creating the object.

 This property by which an object continues to exist even after its creator stops to exist is
known
as
 Couplin
 g
coupling is the degree of interdependence between software modules; a measure of
how closely connected two routines or modules are.
 the strength of the relationships between modules.

I. Procedural programming
 A module here refers to a subroutine of any kind.

 Content coupling (high): Content coupling is said to occur when one module uses the code
of another module, for instance a branch. This violates information hiding: a basic software
design concept.
 Common coupling: it is said to occur when several modules have access to the same global
data. But it can lead to uncontrolled error propagation and unforeseen side-effects when
changes are made.
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 External coupling: it occurs when two modules share an externally imposed

data format, communication protocol, or device interface.
 Control coupling: it is one module controlling the flow of another, by passing
it
information on what to do (e.g., passing a what-to-do flag).
 Stamp coupling (data-structured coupling): it occurs when modules share a
composite data structure and use only parts of it, possibly different parts (e.g.,
passing a whole record to a function that needs only one field of it).
 Data coupling: it occurs when modules share data through, for e.g., parameters.

Each datum is an elementary piece, and these are the only data shared (e.g., passing
an integer to a function that computes a square root).
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II. Object-oriented programming

 Subclass coupling: Describes the relationship between a child and its parent. The child
is
connected to its parent, but the parent is not connected to the child.
 Temporal coupling: It is when two actions are bundled together into one module just
because they happen to occur at the same time.
 Dynamic coupling: The goal of this type of coupling is to provide a run-time evaluation of
a
software system.
 Semantic coupling: This kind of coupling considers the conceptual similarities between
software entities using, for example, comments and identifiers and relying on techniques
such as latent semantic indexing (LSI).
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 Logical coupling: (or evolutionary coupling or change coupling) activities the
release history of a software system to find change patterns among modules or
classes: e.g., entities that are likely to be changed together or sequences of changes
(a change in a class A is always followed by a change in a class B).
 Disadvantages of tight coupling:

Tightly coupled systems has the following disadvantages:

 A change in one module usually forces a ripple effect of changes in other modules.

 Assembly of modules might require more effort and/or time due to the increased
inter- module dependency.
 A particular module might be harder to reuse and/or test because dependent
modules
must be
 Cohesion
 Cohesion refers to the degree to which the elements inside a module belong
together.
 In one sense, it is a measure of the strength of relationship between the methods
and
data of a class and some unifying purpose or concept served by that class.
 Cohesion is an ordinal type of measurement and is usually described as “high
cohesion” or “low cohesion”.
 Modules with high cohesion tend to be preferable, because high cohesion is
associated with several desirable traits of software including robustness,
reliability, reusability, and understandability.
 In contrast, low cohesion is associated with undesirable traits such as being difficult
to maintain, test, reuse, or even understand.
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 Cohesion is often contrasted with coupling, a different concept.

 High cohesion often correlates with loose coupling, and vice versa.

 "Coupling" describes the relationships between modules, and "cohesion" describes

the relationships within them.
 cohesion can be ranked on a scale of the weakest (least desirable) to the strongest
(most desirable) as follows.
 Coincidental cohesion [elements are in the same module for no particular reason]

 Logical cohesion [elements perform logically related tasks]

 Temporal cohesion [elements must be used at approximately the same time]

 Communication cohesion [elements share I/O]

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 Sequential cohesion [elements must be used in a particular order]

 Functional cohesion [elements cooperate to carry out a single function]

 Data cohesion [elements cooperate to present an interface to a hidden data structure

 One can often estimate the degree of cohesion within a module by writing a
brief statement of the module's purpose.

The following tests are suggested :

 If the sentence that describes the purpose of the module is a compound
sentence containing a comma or more than one verb, the module is probably
performing more than one function; therefore, it probably has sequential or
communicational binding [or even less: temporal, logical, or coincidental]
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 If the sentence contains words relating to time, such as "first," "next," "then,"
"after," "when," or "start," the module probably has sequential or temporal binding.
An example is "Wait for the instant teller customer to insert a card, then
prompt for the personal identification number."
 If the predicate of the sentence does not contain a single, specific object
following the verb, the module is probably logically bound. For example, "Edit all
data" has logical binding; "Edit source data" may have functional binding.
 If the sentence contains words such as "Initialize" or "Clean up," the module
probably
has temporal binding.
 polymorphism
 Polymorphism is originally a Greek word that means the ability to take multiple
forms.
 In object-oriented paradigm, polymorphism implies using operations in different
ways, depending upon the instance they are operating upon.
 Polymorphism allows objects with different internal structures to have a
common external interface.
 Polymorphism is particularly effective while implementing inheritance.
 Polymorphism is an OOP concept that refers to the ability of a variable,
function, or object to take on multiple forms.
 In a programming language exhibiting polymorphism, class objects belonging to
the same hierarchical tree (inherited from a common parent class) may have
functions with
the same name, but with different behaviors.
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 Types of polymorphism:
 Compile time
polymorphism Example:
Method overloading
 Runtime polymorphism
Example: Method overriding
Advantages of polymorphism:
 It helps programmers reuse code
and classes once written, tested,
and implemented.
 A single variable name can be used to store variables of multiple data types
(float, double, long, int, etc).
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Interfaces
 All data should be hidden within a class.
 make all data attributes private
 provide public methods (accessor methods) to get and set the data values
e.g. Grade information is usually confidential, hence it should be kept private to the student.
Access
to the grade information should be done through interfaces, such as setGrade() and getGrde()

Components: Components are self contained entities that provide

service to other components or actors.
 The deployment diagram focuses on the allocation of components to nodes and
provides
a high-level view of each component.
End of chapter
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