Chapter 2

Regular Expression and Regular languages

2.1. Regular expression
 We construct regular expressions from primitive constituents by
repeatedly applying certain recursive rules.
 Let Σ be a given alphabet. Then
 ∅, λ, and a ∈ Σ are all regular expressions. These are called
primitive regular expressions.
 If r1 and r2 are regular expressions, so are r1 + r2, r1 . r2, r1*, and (r1).
We use + to denote union, · for concatenation and ∗ for star-
closure.
 A string is a regular expression if and only if it can be derived from
the primitive regular expressions by a finite number of applications
of the rules in (2).
…cont’d
 Example, For Σ = {a, b, c}, the string (a + b · c)* · (c + ∅) is a regular
expression, since it is constructed by application of the above rules.
For example, if we take r1 = c and r2 = ∅, we find that c + ∅ and (c +
∅) are also regular expressions. Repeating this, we eventually generate
the whole string. On the other hand, (a + b +) is not a regular
expression, since there is no way it can be constructed from the
primitive regular expressions.
 Regular expressions can be used to describe some simple languages. If
r is a regular expression, L(r) denote the language associated with r.
…cont’d
 The language L (r) denoted by any regular expression r is defined by
the following rules.
 ∅ is a regular expression denoting the empty set,
 λ is a regular expression denoting {λ},
 For every a ∈ Σ, a is a regular expression denoting {a}.
 If r1 and r2 are regular expressions, then
 L (r1 + r2 ) = L (r1 ) ∪ L (r2 ),
 L (r1 · r2 ) = L (r1 ) L (r2 ),
 L ((r1 )) = L (r1 ),
 L (r1 * ) = (L (r1 ))*.
…cont’d
 Example: Exhibit the language L (a* · (a + b)) in set notation.
L (a* · (a + b)) = L (a*) L (a + b)
= (L (a))* (L (a) ∪ L (b))
= {λ, a, aa, aaa, ...}{a, b}
= {a, aa, aaa, ..., b, ab, aab, ...}.
2.2 Connection between Regular Expressions
and Regular Languages
 For every regular language there is a regular expression, and for every
regular expression there is a regular language.
 Theorem – Let r be a regular expression. Then there exists some
nondeterministic finite automaton that accepts L (r). Consequently,
L (r) is a regular language.
 Theorem - Let L be a regular language. Then there exists a regular
expression r such that L = L(r).
2.3. Regular Grammar
Grammars
 A grammar for the English language tells us whether a particular
sentence is well formed or not.
 A typical rule of English grammar is “a sentence can consist of a noun
phrase followed by a predicate.”
〈 sentence 〉 → 〈 noun phrase 〉 〈 predicate 〉
〈 noun phrase 〉 → 〈 article 〉 〈 noun 〉 ,
〈 predicate 〉 → 〈 verb 〉
…cont’d
 If we associate the actual words “a” and “the” with 〈 article 〉 , “boy”
and “dog” with 〈 noun 〉 , and “runs” and “walks” with 〈 verb 〉 ,
then the grammar tells us that the sentences “a boy runs” and “the dog
walks” are properly formed.
 We start with the top-level concept, here 〈 sentence 〉 , and
successively reduce it to the irreducible building blocks of the
language.
 The generalization of these ideas leads us to formal grammars.
…cont’d
 A grammar G is defined as a quadruple G = (V, T, S, P), where V is a
finite set of objects called variables, T is a finite set of objects called
terminal symbols, S ∈ V is a special symbol called the start variable, P
is a finite set of productions.
 The sets V and T are nonempty and disjoint.
 The production rules specify how the grammar transforms one string
into another, and through this they define a language associated with
the grammar.
 All production rules are of the form x → y, where x is an element of
(V ∪ T)+ and y is in (V ∪ T)*.
…cont’d
 Given a string w of the form w = uxv, we say the production x → y is
applicable to this string, and we may use it to replace x with y, thereby
obtaining a new string z = uyv
 This is written as w ⇒ z. We say that w derives z or that z is derived
from w.
 If w1 ⇒ w2 ⇒ ··· ⇒ wn, we say that w1 derives wn and write w1*⇒ wn.
 The ∗ indicates that an unspecified number of steps (including zero)
can be taken to derive wn from w1
 By applying the production rules in a different order, a given grammar
can normally generate many strings.
 The set of all such terminal strings is the language defined or
generated by the grammar.
…cont’d
 Let G = (V, T, S, P) be a grammar. Then the set
L(G) = {w ∈ T* : S* ⇒ w} is the language generated by G.
 If w ∈ L (G), then the sequence
S ⇒ w1 ⇒ w2 ⇒ ··· ⇒ wn ⇒ w is a derivation of the sentence w.
 The strings S, w1, w2, ..., wn, which contain variables as well as
terminals, are called sentential forms of the derivation.
 Example 1, consider the grammar G = ({S}, {a, b}, S, P), with P given
by
S → aSb,
S → λ.
…cont’d
 Then S ⇒ aSb ⇒ aaSbb ⇒ aabb, so we can write S * ⇒ aabb.
 The string aabb is a sentence in the language generated by G, while aaSbb is a
sentential form.
 Example 2, find a grammar that generates
L = {anbn+1: n ≥ 0}.
 Generate an extra b with a production S → Ab, and ab with a production
A → aAb. chosen so that A can derive the language in the previous example.
Hence, the grammar is G = ({S, A}, {a, b}, S, P), with productions
S → Ab,
A → aAb,
A→λ
 Two grammars G1 and G2 are equivalent if they generate the same
language, that is, if L (G1) = L (G2).
…cont’d
Right- and Left-Linear Grammars
 A grammar G = (V, T, S, P) is said to be right-linear if all productions are of
the form
A → xB, or
A → x,
where A, B ∈ V, and x ∈ T*.
 A grammar is said to be left-linear if all productions are of the form
A → Bx, or
A → x.
 A regular grammar is one that is either right-linear or left-linear.
…cont’d
 Example 1, The grammar G1 = ({S}, {a, b}, S, P1), with P1 given
as S → abS|a is right-linear. The grammar G2 = ({S, S1, S2}, {a,
b}, S, P2), with productions S → S1ab, S1 → S1ab|S2, S2 → a, is
left-linear. Therefore, both G1 and G2 are regular grammars.
 Example 2, The grammar G = ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, S, P) with
productions
S → A,
A → aB|λ,
B → Ab, is not regular because the grammar
itself is
neither right-linear nor left-linear
…cont’d
Right-Linear Grammars Generate Regular Languages
 Theorem: Let G = (V, T, S, P) be a right-linear grammar. Then L (G) is a
regular language.
 Example: Construct a finite automaton that accepts the language generated by
the grammar
V0 → aV1,
V1 → abV0|b,
where V0 is the start variable.
 We start the transition graph with vertices V0, V1, and Vf.
 The first production rule creates an edge labeled a between V0 and V1.
 For the second rule, we need to introduce an additional vertex so that there
is a path labeled ab between V1 and V0.
…cont’d
 Finally, we need to add an edge labeled b between V1 and Vf, giving the
following automaton

 The language generated by the grammar and accepted by the automaton is

the regular language L ((aab)*ab)
…cont’d
Right-Linear Grammars for Regular Languages
 Theorem: If L is a regular language on the alphabet Σ, then there exists a right-
linear grammar G = (V, Σ, S, P) such that L = L (G).
 To show that every regular language can be generated by some right-linear
grammar, we start from the DFA for the language and construct right-linear
grammar
 The states of the DFA now become the variables of the grammar, and the
symbols causing the transitions become the terminals in the productions.
 Example, Construct a right-linear grammar for L (aab*a).
 The transition function for an DFA, together with the corresponding
grammar productions is
…cont’d

 The string aaba can be derived with the constructed grammar by

q0 ⇒ aq1 ⇒ aaq2 ⇒ aabq2 ⇒ aabaqf ⇒ aaba.
…cont’d
 Theorem – A language L is regular if and only if there exists a left-linear
grammar G such that L = L (G).
 Theorem – A language L is regular if and only if there exists a regular
grammar G such that L = L (G).
 2.4. Pumping lemma and non-regular
language
Using the Pigeonhole Principle
 The term “pigeonhole principle” is used by mathematicians to refer to the
following simple observation. If we put n objects into m boxes (pigeonholes),
and if n > m, then at least one box must have more than one item in it.
A Pumping Lemma
 The pumping lemma for regular languages, uses the pigeonhole principle in
another form.
 Theorem - Let L be an infinite regular language. Then there exists some
positive integer m such that any w ∈ L with |w| ≥ m can be decomposed as
w = xyz
with
|xy| ≤ m,
and
…cont’d
|y| ≥ 1,
such that
wi = xyiz,
is also in L for all i = 0, 1, 2, ....
 Example : Use the pumping lemma to show that L = {a2b2: n ≥ 0} is not
regular.
 Assume that L is regular, so that the pumping lemma must hold. We do not
know the value of m, but whatever it is, we can always choose n = m.
Therefore, the substring y must consist entirely of a’s. Suppose |y| = k.
Then the string obtained by using i = 0 is w0 = am-kbm and is clearly not in
L. This contradicts the pumping lemma and thereby indicates that the
assumption that L is regular must be false.