Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)

• It is also known as 2-D parity check. In this method, data which the
user want to send is organised into tables of rows and columns.
• A block of bit is divided into table or matrix of rows and columns.
• In order to detect an error, a redundant bit is added to the whole
block and this block is transmitted to receiver.
• The receiver uses this redundant row to detect error.
• After checking the data for errors, receiver accepts the data and
discards the redundant row of bits.
• Example :
If a block of 32 bits is to be transmitted, it is divided into matrix of four
rows and eight columns which as shown in the following figure :
• In this matrix of bits, a parity bit (odd or even) is
calculated for each column.
• It means 32 bits data plus 8 redundant bits are transmitted
to receiver.
• Whenever data reaches at the destination, receiver uses
LRC to detect error in data.
• Advantage :
LRC is used to detect burst errors.
• Example : Suppose 32 bit data plus LRC that was being
transmitted is hit by a burst error of length 5 and some
bits are corrupted as shown in the following figure :
• The LRC received by the destination does not match with
newly corrupted LRC.
• The destination comes to know that the data is erroneous, so
it discards the data.
• Disadvantage :
The main problem with LRC is that, it is not able to detect
error if two bits in a data unit are damaged and two bits in
exactly the same position in other data unit are also damaged.
• Example : If data 110011 010101 is changed to
010010110100.
 Two bits at same bit position damaged in 2 data units

• In this example 1st and 6th bit in one data unit

is changed . Also the 1st and 6th bit in second
unit is changed.
 ARP

• ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

• ARP is used to convert the logical address ie. IP address into
physical address ie. MAC address.
• While communicating with other nodes, it is necessary to
know the MAC address or physical address of the destination
node.
• If any of the node in a network wants to know the physical
address of another node in the same network, the host then
sends an ARP query packet.
• This ARP query packet consists of IP address and MAC address
of source host and only the IP address of destination host.
 Continue..
• This ARP packet is then received to every node present in
the network.
• The mode with its own IP address recognises it and
sends it MAC address to the requesting node.
• But sending and receiving such packets to know the
MAC address of destination node it increases the traffic
load.
• Therefore in order to reduce this traffic and improve the
performance, the systems that makes use of ARP
maintain a cache of recently acquired IP into MAC
address bindings.
 RARP

• RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution

Protocol.
• RARP works opposite of ARP.
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol is used to
convert MAC address ie. physical address into
IP address ie. logical address.
• RARP provides with a feature for the systems
and applications to get their own IP address
from a DNS( Domain Name System) or router.
• This type of resolution is required for various
tasks such as executing reverse DNS lookup.
• As Reverse Address Resolution Protocol works
at low level it requires direct network
addresses.
• The reply from the server mostly carries a
small information but the 32 bit internet
address is used and it does not exploit the full
potential of a network such as ethernet.
 ICMP

• ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

• ICMP is a part of IP protocol suite.
• ICMP is an error reporting and network diagnostic
protocol.
• Feedback in the network is reported to the designated
host.
• Meanwhile, if any kind of error occur it is then
reported to ICMP.
• ICMP protocol consists of many error reporting and
diagnostic messages.
• ICMP protocol handles various kinds of errors such as
time exceeded, redirection, source quench, destination
unreachable, parameter problems etc.
• The messages in ICMP are divided into two types. They
are given below:
• Error Message: Error message states about the issues or
problems that are faced by the host or routers during
processing of IP packet.
• Query Message: Query messages are used by the host in
order to get information from a router or another host.
 Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP)

• BOOTP is a networking protocol which is used by

networking administration to give IP addresses to each
member of that network for participating with other
networking devices by the main server.
• Important Features of Bootstrap Protocol :
• Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a basic protocol that
automatically provides each participant in a network
connection with a unique IP address for identification
and authentication as soon as it connects to the
network. This helps the server to speed up data
transfers and connection requests.
• BOOTP uses a unique IP address algorithm to provide
each system on the network with a completely
different IP address in a fraction of a second.
• This shortens the connection time between the server
and the client. It starts the process of downloading
and updating the source code even with very little
information.
• BOOTP uses a combination of TFTP (Trivial File
Transfer Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
to request and receive requests from various network-
connected participants and to handle their responses.
 DHCP
• DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol.
• It is the critical feature on which the users of an
enterprise network communicate.
• DHCP helps enterprises to smoothly manage the
allocation of IP addresses to the end-user clients’
devices such as desktops, laptops, cellphones, etc.
• is an application layer protocol that is used to
provide: DHCP is based on a client-server model and
based on discovery, offer, request, and ACK.
 Why Use DHCP?

• DHCP helps in managing the entire process

automatically and centrally. DHCP helps in
maintaining a unique IP Address for a host
using the server. DHCP servers maintain
information on TCP/IP configuration and
provide configuration of address to DHCP-
enabled clients in the form of a lease offer.
 OSPF
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state
routing protocol that is used to find the best path
between the source and the destination router
using its own.
• OSPF is developed by Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF).
• It is one of the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP), i.e,
the protocol which aims at moving the packet
within a large autonomous system or routing
domain.
• Router Id – It is the highest active IP address present on the
router. First, the highest loopback address is considered. If no
loopback is configured then the highest active IP address on the
interface of the router is considered.
• Router priority – It is an 8-bit value assigned to a router operating
OSPF, used to elect DR and BDR in a broadcast network.
• Designated Router (DR) – It is elected to minimize the number of
adjacencies formed. DR distributes the LSAs to all the other
routers. DR is elected in a broadcast network to which all the
other routers share their DBD. In a broadcast network, the router
requests for an update to DR, and DR will respond to that request
with an update.
• Backup Designated Router (BDR) – BDR is a backup to DR in a
broadcast network. When DR goes down, BDR becomes DR
and performs its functions.
• DR and BDR election – DR and BDR election takes place in the
broadcast network or multi-access network. Here are the
criteria for the election:
– The router having the highest router priority will be declared as DR.
– If there is a tie in router priority then the highest router I’d be
considered.
– First, the highest loopback address is considered.
– If no loopback is configured then the highest active IP address on
the interface of the router is considered.
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

• It is an inter domain routing protocol, and it uses

the path-vector routing. It is a gateway protocol
that is used to exchange routing information
among the autonomous system on the internet.
• As we know that Border Gateway Protocol works
on different autonomous systems.
• GGP (Gateway to Gateway Routing Protocol).
• EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol)
• IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol)
 Multicasting
• Multicast is a method of group communication
where the sender sends data to multiple receivers or
nodes present in the network simultaneously.
• Multicasting is a type of one-to-many and many-to-
many communication as it allows sender or senders
to send data packets to multiple receivers at once
across LANs or WANs.
• This process helps in minimizing the data frame of
the network because at once the data can be
received by multiple nodes.
• Multicasting is considered as the special case
of broadcasting .
• it works in similar to Broadcasting, but in
Multicasting, the information is sent to the
targeted or specific members of the network.