AS-Level Maths:

Core 1
for OCR-MEI

C1.5 Polynomials

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 Polynomials

Polynomials
Adding and subtracting polynomials
Contents

Multiplying polynomials
Dividing polynomials
The remainder theorem
The factor theorem
Binomial expansions
Examination-style questions

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Polynomials

A polynomial in x is an expression of the form

ax n + bx n 1 + cx n 2 +...+ px 2 + qx + r
where a, b, c, … are constant coefficients and
n is a positive integer.

The value of a is called the leading coefficient.

Examples of polynomials include:
3x7 + 4x3 – x + 8 x11 – 2x8 + 9x and 5 + 3x2 – 2x3.
Polynomials are usually written in descending powers of x.
They can also be written in ascending powers of x, especially
when the leading coefficient is negative, as in the last example.

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Polynomials

The degree, or order, of a polynomial is given by the highest

power of the variable.

A polynomial of degree 1 is called linear and has the

general form ax + b.

A polynomial of degree 2 is called quadratic and has the

general form ax2 + bx + c.

A polynomial of degree 3 is called cubic and has the

general form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.

A polynomial of degree 4 is called quartic and has the

general form ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e.

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Using function notation

Polynomials are often expressed using function notation.

For example, consider the polynomial function:
f(x) = 2x2 – 7
We can use this notation to substitute given values of x.
For example:

Find f(x) when a) x = –2 b) x = t + 1

a) f(–2) = 2(–2)2 – 7 b) f(t + 1) = 2(t + 1)2 – 7

=8–7 = 2(t2 + 2t + 1) – 7
= –1 = 2t2 + 4t + 2 – 7
= 2t2 + 4t – 5
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 Adding and subtracting polynomials

Polynomials
Adding and subtracting polynomials
Contents

Multiplying polynomials
Dividing polynomials
The remainder theorem
The factor theorem
Binomial expansions
Examination-style questions

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Adding and subtracting polynomials

When two or more polynomials are added, subtracted or

multiplied, the result is another polynomial.
Polynomials are added and subtracted by collecting like
terms.
For example: f(x) = 2x3 – 5x + 4 and g(x) = 2x – 4

Find a) f(x) + g(x) b) f(x) – g(x)

a) f(x) + g(x) b) f(x) – g(x)

= 2x3 – 5x + 4 + 2x – 4 = 2x3 – 5x + 4 – (2x – 4)
= 2x3 – 3x = 2x3 – 5x + 4 – 2x + 4
= 2x3 – 7x + 8
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 Multiplying polynomials

Polynomials
Adding and subtracting polynomials
Contents

Multiplying polynomials
Dividing polynomials
The remainder theorem
The factor theorem
Binomial expansions
Examination-style questions

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Multiplying polynomials

When two polynomials are multiplied together every term in the

first polynomial must by multiplied by every term in the second
polynomial. For example:

f(x) = 3x3 – 2 and g(x) = x3 + 5x – 1

f(x)g(x) = (3x3 – 2)(x3 + 5x – 1)

= 3x6 + 15x4 – 3x3 – 2x3 – 10x + 2

= 3x6 + 15x4 – 5x3 – 10x + 2

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Multiplying polynomials

Sometimes we only need to find the coefficient of a single term.

For example:

Find the coefficient of x2 when x3 – 4x2 + 2x

is multiplied by 2x3 + 5x2 – x – 6.

We don’t need to multiply this out in full. We only need to

decide which terms will multiply together to give terms in x2.

(x3 – 4x2 + 2x)(2x3 + 5x2 – x – 6)

We have: 24x2 – 2x2

= 22x2
So, the coefficient of x2 is 22.
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Multiplying polynomials

Two polynomials are multiplied together and the

resulting polynomial is x3 + x2 – 10x + 8.
One of the polynomials is (x + 4). What is the other?
x + 4 is a linear polynomial. To obtain a cubic polynomial as
required we need to multiply it by a quadratic of the form
ax2 + bx + c.
We can write (x + 4)(ax2 + bx + c) ≡ x3 + x2 – 10x + 8.
This is an example of an identity as shown by the symbol ≡.
An identity is true for all values of x.
Since the expression on the left hand side is equivalent to the
expression on the right hand side, the coefficients of x3, x2, x and
the constant must be the same on both sides.

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Equating coefficients

We can use the method of equating coefficients to find the

values of a, b and c in the identity
(x + 4)(ax2 + bx + c) ≡ x3 + x2 – 10x + 8
Multiplying out:
ax3 + bx2 + cx + 4ax2 + 4bx + 4c ≡ x3 + x2 – 10x + 8
ax3 + (b + 4a)x2 + (c + 4b)x + 4c ≡ x3 + x2 – 10x + 8
Equating the coefficients of x3 gives
a=1
Equating the coefficients of x2 gives
b + 4a = 1
But a = 1 so b+4=1
b = –3
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Equating coefficients

Equating the coefficients of x gives

c + 4b = –10
But b = –3 so c – 12 = –10
c=2
We can equate the constants to check this value:
4c = 8
c=2
Substituting a = 1, b = –3 and c = 2 into
(x + 4)(ax2 + bx + c) ≡ x3 + x2 – 10x + 8
Gives the solution
(x + 4)(x2 – 3x + 2) = x3 + x2 – 10x + 8

What is x3 + x2 – 10x + 8 divided by x + 4?

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 Dividing polynomials

Polynomials
Adding and subtracting polynomials
Contents

Multiplying polynomials
Dividing polynomials
The remainder theorem
The factor theorem
Binomial expansions
Examination-style questions

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Dividing polynomials

Suppose we want to divide one polynomial f(x) by another

polynomial of lower order g(x).
There are two possibilities. Either:
g(x) will leave a remainder when divided into f(x).
g(x) will divide exactly into f(x). In this case, g(x) is a factor
of f(x) and the remainder is 0.
We can use either of two methods to divide one polynomial by
another. These are by:
using long division, or
writing an identity and equating coefficients.

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Dividing polynomials by long division

Using long division

The method of long division used for numbers can be applied
to the division of polynomial functions.
Let’s start by looking at the method for numbers.
For example, we can divide 5482 by 15 as follows:

365 This tells us that 15 divides into 5482

15 5 4 8 2 365 times, leaving a remainder of 7.
–45 We can write
98
–90 5482 ÷ 15 = 365 remainder 7
82 or 5482 = 15 × 365 + 7
– 75
7 The
=
The
×
The
+
The
dividend divisor quotient remainder
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Dividing polynomials by long division

We can use the same method to divide polynomials.

For example:
What is f(x) = x3 – x2 – 7x + 3 divided by x – 3?
This tells us that x3 – x2 – 7x + 3
x2 + 2x – 1
divided by x – 3 is x2 + 2x – 1.
x–3 x3 – x2 – 7x + 3
The remainder is 0 and so x – 3
x3 – 3x2
is a factor of f(x).
2x2 – 7x
We can write
2x2 – 6x
x3  x 2  7 x + 3
–x+3 = x2 + 2x  1
x 3
–x+3 or
0 x3 – x2 – 7x + 3 =(x – 3)(x2 + 2x – 1)

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Dividing polynomials by long division

Here is another example:

What is f(x) = 2x3 – 3x2 + 1 divided by x – 2?
This tells us that 2x3 – 3x2 + 1
2x2 + x + 2 divided by x – 2 is 2x2 + x + 2
x–2 2x3 – 3x2 + 0x + 1 remainder 5.
2x3 – 4x2 There is a remainder and so x – 2
x2 + 0x is not a factor of f(x).
x2 – 2x We can write
2x + 1 2 x3  3 x2  1 2 5
2 x  x  2 
2x – 4 x 2 x 2
5 or
2x3 – 3x2 + 1 =(x – 2)(2x2 + x + 2) + 5

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Dividing polynomials

Using the method of equating coefficients

Polynomials can also be divided by constructing an appropriate
identity and equating the coefficients. For example:

What is f(x) = 3x2 + 11x – 8 divided by x + 5?

We can write f(x) = 3x2 + 11x – 8 in terms of a quotient and a

remainder as follows:
3x2 + 11x – 8 = (x + 5)(quotient) + (remainder)
To obtain a quadratic polynomial the quotient must be a linear
polynomial of the form ax + b.
We can write the following identity:
3x2 + 11x – 8 ≡ (x + 5)(ax + b) + r

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Dividing polynomials

Expanding: 3x2 + 11x – 8 ≡ ax2 + bx + 5ax + 5b + r

≡ ax2 + (b + 5a)x + 5b + r
Equating the coefficients of x2: a=3
Equating the coefficients of x: b + 5a = 11
But a = 3 so b + 15 = 11
b = –4
Equating the constants: 5b + r = –8
But b = –4 so –20 + r = –8
r = 12
We can use these values to write
3x2 + 11x – 8 ≡ (x + 5)(3x – 4) + 12
So
3x2 + 11x – 8 divided by x + 5 is 3x – 4 remainder 12.
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 The remainder theorem

Polynomials
Adding and subtracting polynomials
Contents

Multiplying polynomials
Dividing polynomials
The remainder theorem
The factor theorem
Binomial expansions
Examination-style questions

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The remainder theorem

Consider again the example where f(x) = 3x2 + 11x – 8 divided

by x + 5.
Find the value of f(–5).
f(–5) = 3(–5)2 + 11(–5) – 8
= 75 – 55 – 8
= 12
Can you explain why this number should be the same as
the remainder when f(x) = 3x2 + 11x – 8 divided by x + 5?
f(x) = (x + 5)(quotient) + (remainder)
If x = –5 then f(–5) = (–5 + 5)(quotient) + (remainder)
= 0 + (remainder)
So when f(x) is divided by (x + 5), f(–5) = the remainder.
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The remainder theorem

When a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x – a),

the remainder is f(a).

This is called the remainder theorem.

We can use this theorem to find the remainder when a
polynomial is divided by an expression of the form (x – a).
For example:

Find the remainder when the polynomial

f(x) = x3 – 3x2 – 8x + 5 is divided by (x + 2).

Using the Remainder theorem, the remainder is given by f(–2).

f(–2) = (–2)3 – 3(–2)2 – 8(–2) + 5
= –8 – 12 + 16 + 5
=1
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 The factor theorem

Polynomials
Adding and subtracting polynomials
Contents

Multiplying polynomials
Dividing polynomials
The remainder theorem
The factor theorem
Binomial expansions
Examination-style questions

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The factor theorem

Suppose that when a polynomial f(x) is divided by an

expression of the form (x – a) the remainder is 0.

What can you conclude about (x – a)?

If the remainder f(a) is 0 then (x – a) is a factor of f(x).

This is the factor theorem:

If (x – a) is a factor of a polynomial f(x) then f(a) = 0.

The converse is also true:

If f(a) = 0 then (x – a) is a factor of a polynomial f(x).

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The factor theorem

Use the factor theorem to show that

(x + 2) is a factor of f(x) = 3x2 + 5x – 2.
Hence or otherwise, factorize f(x).

(x + 2) is a factor of 3x2 + 5x – 2 if f(–2) = 0

f(–2) = 3(–2)2 + 5(–2) – 2
= 12 – 10 – 2
=0 as required.
We can write 3x2 + 5x – 2 = (x + 2)(ax + b)
By inspection a = 3 and b = –1
And so 3x2 + 5x – 2 = (x + 2)(3x – 1)

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Factorizing polynomials

The factor theorem can be used to factorize polynomials by

systematically looking for values of x that will make the
polynomial equal to 0. For example:

Factorize the cubic polynomial x3 – 3x2 – 6x + 8.

Let f(x) = x3 – 3x2 – 6x + 8.

f(x) has a constant term of 8. So possible factors of f(x) are:
(x ± 1), (x ± 2), (x ± 4) or (x ± 8)
f(1) = 1 – 3 – 6 + 8 = 0  (x – 1) is a factor of f(x).
f(–1) = –1 – 3 + 6 + 8 ≠ 0  (x + 1) is not a factor of f(x).
f(2) = 8 – 12 – 12 + 8 ≠ 0  (x – 2) is not a factor of f(x).

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Factorizing polynomials

f(–2) = – 8 – 12 + 12 + 8 = 0  (x + 2) is a factor of f(x).

f(4) = 64 – 48 – 24 + 8 = 0  (x – 4) is a factor of f(x).
We have found three factors and so we can stop.
The given polynomial can therefore be fully factorized as:
x3 – 3x2 – 6x + 8 = (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 4)

Factorize f(x) = x3 + 1

f(x) has a constant term of 1 so the only possible factors of f(x)

are (x – 1) or (x + 1).
f(1) = 1 + 1 ≠ 0  (x – 1) is not a factor of f(x).
f(–1) = (–1)3 + 1 = 0  (x + 1) is a factor of f(x).

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The factor theorem

We don’t know any other factors but we do know that the

expression x + 1 must be multiplied by a quadratic expression
to give x3 + 1. We can therefore write
x3 + 1 = (x + 1)(ax2 + bx + c)
We can see immediately that a = 1 and c = 1 so
x3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x2 + bx + 1)
= x3 + bx2 + x + x2 + bx + 1
= x3 + (b + 1)x2 + (b + 1)x + 1
Equating coefficients of x2 gives
b+1=0
b = –1
So x3 + 1 can be fully factorized as
x3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x2 – x + 1)
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Extending the remainder and factor theorems

Suppose we want to know the remainder when a polynomial

f(x) is divided by an expression of the form (ax – b). We can
write
f(x) = (ax – b)(quotient) + (remainder)
We can eliminate the quotient by choosing x so that
ax – b = 0
ax = b
b
x=
So, in general: a

When a polynomial f(x) is divided by (ax – b),

b
the remainder is f   .
a

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Extending the remainder and factor theorems

Find the remainder when the polynomial

f(x) = 2x3 – 6x + 1 is divided by (2x – 1).
Using the remainder theorem, the remainder is given by f ( 21 ).
f ( 21 ) = 2( 21 )3  6( 21 ) + 1
= 41  3 + 1
=  1 34
We can similarly extend the factor theorem to include factors
of the form (ax – b).
We can write:
b
f   = 0  ( ax  b ) is a factor of f (x )
a
Where  means ‘implies and is implied by’.
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 Binomial expansions

Polynomials
Adding and subtracting polynomials
Contents

Multiplying polynomials
Dividing polynomials
The remainder theorem
The factor theorem
Binomial expansions
Examination-style questions

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Pascal’s Triangle

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Binomial expansions

An expression containing two terms, for example a + b, is called

a binomial expression.
When we find powers of binomial expressions an interesting
pattern emerges.
(a + b)0 = 1
(a + b)1 = 1a + 1b
(a + b)2 = 1a2 + 2ab + 1b2
(a + b)3 = 1a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + 1b3
(a + b)4 = 1a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + 1b4
(a + b)5 = 1a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + 1b5

What patterns do you notice?

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Finding binomial coefficients

When n is large we can find the binomial coefficients using

combinations theory.
Let’s look more closely at the expansion of
(a + b)4 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)(a + b)
Ways of Ways of Ways of Ways of Ways of
getting a4 getting a3b getting a2b2 getting ab3 getting b4
aaaa aaab aabb abbb bbbb
aaba abab babb
abaa abba bbab
baaa bbaa bbba
baba
baab
1 way 4 ways 6 ways 4 ways 1 way

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Binomial expansions

Expand (2x – y)4

Using (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4

and replacing a with 2x and b with –y gives:
(2x – y)4 = (2x)4 + 4(2x)3(–y) + 6(2x)2(–y)2 + 4(2x)(–y)3 + (–y)4
= 16x4 – 32x3y + 24x2y2 – 8xy3 + y4
Notice that when the second term in a binomial is negative the
signs of the terms in the expansion will alternate.
Suppose we wanted to expand (a + b)20.
We could find the 20th row of Pascal’s triangle, but this would
take a very long time.

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Binomial expansions

In general, in the expansion of (a + b)n:

The coefficients are given by the (n + 1)th row of Pascal’s
triangle.
The sum of the powers of a and b is n for each term.
Altogether, there are n + 1 terms in the expansion.
As long as n is relatively small, we can expand a given binomial
directly by comparing it to the equivalent expansion of (a + b)n.
For example:
Expand (x + 1)5

Using (a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5

and replacing a with x and b with 1 gives:
(x + 1)5 = x5 + 5x4 + 10x3 + 10x2 + 5x + 1
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Finding binomial coefficients

The situation where no b’s (or four a’s) are chosen from any of
the four brackets can be written as
 4  4
4
C0 or   . This is the same as C4 or   .
4
 0  4
The situation where one b (or three a’s) can be chosen from
any of the four brackets can be written as:
 4  4
4
C1 or   . This is the same as 4C3 or   .
 1  3
The situation where two b‘s (or two a’s) can be chosen from
any of the four brackets can be written as
 4
4
C2 or   .
 2
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Finding binomial coefficients

The fifth row of Pascal’s triangle can be written as:

 4  4  4  4  4
 0  1  2  3  4
         
This corresponds to the values

1 4 6 4 1

The expansion of (a + b)4 can therefore be written as:

 4 4  4 3  4 2 2  4 3  4 4
4
(a  b)   a    a b    a b    ab    b
 0  1  2  3  4
Or: (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4

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Finding binomial coefficients

The number of ways to choose r objects from a group of

n objects is written as nCr and is given by
 n n!
 r  = r! n  r !
   
n! is read as ‘n factorial’ and is the product of all the natural
numbers from 1 to n.
In general:

n! = n × (n –1) × (n – 2) × (n – 3) … × 2 × 1

n can also be 0 and by definition 0! = 1.

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Finding binomial coefficients

The value of n! gets large very quickly as the value of n

increases. For example:
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
12! = 12 × 11 × 10 × … × 2 × 1 = 479 001 600
20! = 20 × 19 × 18 × … × 2 × 1 = 2 432 902 008 176 640 000

Fortunately, when we use the formula

 n n!
 r  = r! n  r !
   
to calculate binomial coefficients, many of the numbers cancel
out. For example, for 4C2 we have
2
 4 4! 4 × 3 × 2×1 4×3
= =
 2  2! 2! (2×1)× (2×1) = =6
  2×1
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Finding binomial coefficients

Here are some more examples:

 8 8! 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2×1 8×7×6
= =
 3  3! 5! (3 × 2×1)× (5 × 4 × 3 × 2×1) = = 56
  3 × 2×1
This value corresponds to the number of ways of choosing 3 a’s
from the 8 brackets in the expansion of (a + b)8.
56 is therefore the coefficient of a3b5 in the expansion of (a + b)8.
4
 9 9! 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2×1 9×8
= =
 7  7! 2! (7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2×1)× (2×1) = = 36
  2×1
This value corresponds to the number of ways of choosing 7 a’s
from the 9 brackets in the expansion of (a + b)9.
36 is therefore the coefficient of a7b2 in the expansion of (a + b)9.

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Finding binomial coefficients

The effect of this cancelling gives an alternative form for nCr.

 n  n × ( n  1)× ( n  2)×...× ( n  r +1)
r = r!
 
In general, the expansion of (a + b)n can be written as:

n n  n  n  n 1  n  n 2 2  n n
(a + b) =   a +   a b +   a b + ...+   b
 0  1  2  n

A special case is the expansion of (1 + x)n

 n  n  n 2  n 3
(1 + x ) =   +   x +   x +   x + ... + x n
n

 0   1  2  3
n( n  1) 2 n( n  1)( n  2) 3
= 1+ nx + x + x + ... + x n
2! 3!
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Using the binomial theorem

This method of finding the binomial coefficients is called the

binomial theorem.

Find the coefficient of a7b3 in the

expansion of (a – 2b)10.

The term in a7b3 is of the form:

3 4
 10  7 3 10 × 9 × 8 7 3
 3 a (  2b ) = a (  8b )
  1× 2× 3
= 120(–8a7b3)
= –960a7b3
So the coefficient of a7b3 in the expansion of (a – 2b)10 is –960.

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Using the binomial theorem

Use the binomial theorem to write down the first four terms
in the expansion of (1 + x)7 in ascending powers of x.

7  7  7  7 2  7 3
(1+ x ) =   +   x +   x +   x + ...
 0   1  2  3
3
7×6 2 7×6×5 3
= 1+ 7 x + x + x + ...
2×1 3 × 2×1

= 1+ 7 x + 21x 2 + 35 x 3 + ...

How could we use this expansion to find an

approximate value for 1.17?

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Using the binomial theorem

To find an approximate value for 1.17 we can let x = 0.1 in the

expansion
(1 + x)7 = 1 + 7x + 21x2 + 35x3 + …
This gives us
1.17 ≈ 1 + 7 × 0.1 + 21 × 0.12 + 35 × 0.13
As 0.1 is raised to ever higher powers it becomes much smaller
and so less significant.
We can therefore leave out higher powers of x and still have a
reasonable approximation.
1.112 ≈ 1 + 0.7 + 0.21 + 0.035
≈ 1.945

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 Examination-style questions

Polynomials
Adding and subtracting polynomials
Contents

Multiplying polynomials
Dividing polynomials
The remainder theorem
The factor theorem
Binomial expansions
Examination-style questions

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Examination-style question 1

p(x) = 4x3 + ax2 + bx – 15

p(x) leaves a remainder of 27 when divided by x – 2.
x + 1 is a factor of p(x).
a) Find the values of a and b and hence write p(x) in full.
b) Express p(x) as a product of linear factors.
c) Sketch the graph of y = p(x) clearly indicating where the
graph crosses the coordinate axes.

a) Using the remainder theorem:

p(2) = 32 + 4a + 2b – 15 = 27
4a + 2b = 10
2a + b = 50 1

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Examination-style question 1

Using the factor theorem:

p(–1) = –4 + a – b – 15 = 0
a – b = 19 1

Adding equations 1 and 2 :

3a = 24
a=8
b = –11
So p(x) can be written in full as
p(x) = 4x3 + 8x2 – 11x – 15

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Examination-style question 1

b) We know that x + 1 is a factor of p(x) so we can write

4x3 + 8x2 – 11x – 15 ≡ (x + 1)(ax2 + bx + c)
By inspection
a = 4 and c = –15
Equating the coefficients of x:
–11 = c + b
–11 = –15 + b
b=4
So p(x) = 4x3 + 8x2 – 11x – 15 = (x + 1)(4x2 + 4x – 15)
Factorizing:
p(x) = 4x3 + 8x2 – 11x – 15 = (x + 1)(2x + 5)(2x – 3)

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Examination-style question 1

c) The graph of y = p(x) crosses the x-axis when

4x3 + 8x2 – 11x – 15 = 0
(x + 1)(2x + 5)(2x – 3) = 0
That is when x = –1, x = –2.5, and x = 1.5
The graph of y = p(x) crosses the y-axis when
y = – 15
y

Also the coefficient of x3 is positive

so the graph is -shaped: –2.5 –1 1.5 x
–15

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Examination-style question 2

a) Write down the first four terms in the expansion of (1 + ax)13

in ascending powers of x, where a > 0.
b) Given that in the expansion of (1 + ax)13 the coefficient of x is
–b and the coefficient of x2 is 12b, find the value of a and b.
13 ×12 2 13 ×12×11
a) (1 + ax) = 1+13ax +
13 ( ax ) + ( ax )3 + ...
2 3×2
= 1 + 13ax + 78a2x2 + 286a3x3 + …
b) 13a = –b 1
78a2 = 12b 2
78a2 = 12 × –13a
Substituting 1 into 2 : 78a = –156
a = –2
b = 26
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