Data Structures

and Algorithms
PREPARED BY
PROF. DR . AMANY SARHAN
2024
Types of Data Structures
 What is the data
? structure
A data structure can be defined as a particular
scheme of organizing related data items.
The nature of the data items depends on the
problem at hand.
They can range from elementary data types
(e.g., integers or characters) to data structures
(e.g., a one-dimensional array of one-dimensional
arrays is often used for implementing matrices).
 The Need for Data Structures
 Goal: to organize data
 Criteria: to facilitate efficient
1. storage of data
2. retrieval of data
3. manipulation of data
 Design Issue:
◦ select and design appropriate data types
(This is the main motivation to learn and understand data structures)
◦ There are a few data structures that have proved to be particularly
important for computer algorithms.
 Linear and Complex Data
Structures
The two most important elementary data
structures are the array and the linked list.
We will study also queue, stack, graph and
tree data structures which is higher in
complexity.
Types of Data Structures to study

Array

Linked List

Graph

Tree Queue Stack

 Data Structure Operations
 Navigating
Accessing each data element exactly once so that certain
items in the data may be processed
 Searching
 Finding the location of the data element (key) in the
structure
 Insertion
Adding a new data element to the structure
 Data Structure Operations

 Deletion
◦ Removing a data element from the structure
 Sorting
◦ Arrange the data elements in a logical order
(ascending/descending)
 Merging
◦ Combining data elements from two or more data
structures into one
 Important functions on
any data structure
Build (x) => build the data structure
Get length => identify the no of items in DS
Get item => access specific item in DS
Set item => change the value of specific item
in DS
Iterate => navigate through the items in DS
 Important functions on
any data structure
For example, if we have items x0, x1, …..,xn-1
Build (x) => create the data structure (array, linked list,…
etc)
Get length => return n (no of items)
Get item => return xi (i is the item index)
Set item => store a value at xi = w
Iterate => output x0, x1, ….., xn-1 in specific order
The most easiest way is to use arrays
Arrays
 Arrays
It is a sequence of words placed in contiguous places in
the RAM, even it is multidimentional
An array starts at address x in RAM, for example.
To access the array in position i, this means we access
memory at position x+i.
Array[i] = array[memory address of array + i]
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
 Contiguous Storage of
Array in RAM
If the first element of an array starts at memory address a
Each array element occupies b bytes,
Then, the second element starts at a + b , third starts at a
+ 2.b,….
In general, the i th element starts at a + i.b.
In an array that has N elements, it will be located from a
to a + N.b
 Access time of Array
Elements
This means we can access each item at a constant time
We will call it O(1) (order of 1, means constant time)
Accessing time to array[h] = Accessing time to array[w]
This is called random accessing of array (as we know about the RAM)
Then get item and set item time is O(1) in arrays.
Building the array, however, is dependent on its size
 Then Build (x) time is O(n) in arrays.
If you do not know the size of data, you tend to make large size of array
which you may use a part of it only. This is a waste of time and space!!!!!
 Array Dimensions
Arrays are table-like structures. You can also think of them
as matrices in mathematics.
An array's dimension specifies how many indices an array
1 0 1 0
has. 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1.2 1 0 1 0 1 00 11 10 0
1 00 111 100 0 0 1
2.1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 11 10 01 0 1
6.5 1 0 0 1 00 10 01 1
1 00 10 01 1
17.0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
1-dimensional 2-dimensional
array array 3-dimensional array
 Two Dimensional Array
Representation
We typically represent a matrix or two-dimensional array
by one or more one dimensional arrays.
The two most common ways to store a matrix are:
◦ row-major and column-major order.
◦ Let’s consider an m X n matrix (m rows and n columns.
In row-major order, the matrix is stored row by row,
In column-major order, the matrix is stored column by
column.
 Two Dimensional Array
Representation
For example, consider the 2 X 3 matrix

 Eq. (10.1)
Row-major order stores the two rows 1 2 3 and 4 5 6,
Column-major order stores the three columns 1 4; 2 5;
and 3 6.
Figure 10.1 shows how to store this matrix using a single
one-dimensional array.
Basic usages of
arrays

Array declaration and creation

Accessing elements in arrays

 Array declaration and creation

Each element in an array must be of the same type.

Arrays are declared using the following syntax:
type array-name [no. of items];
Where type is the data type of the array elements.
Here are some examples:
Float names[100];
Char SS[3];
 Array Properties

long[
long[ ]] row
row == new
new long[4];
long[4]; row.Rank
row.Rank 11

0 0 0 0 row.Length
row.Length 44
row

int[,]
int[,] grid
grid == new
new int[2,3];
int[2,3];
grid.Rank
grid.Rank 22

0 0 0 grid.Length
grid.Length 66
grid 0 0 0
 Methods and Properties for Retrieving Array Metadata

Length: Returns the total number of elements in all

dimensions of an array.
 GetLength: Returns the number of elements in
specified dimension of an array.
Rank: Returns the number of dimensions of an array.
 GetType: Returns the Type of the current array
instance.
 Array Methods
Commonly used methods
◦ Sort – sorts the elements in an array of rank 1
◦ Clear – sets a range of elements to zero or null
◦ Clone – creates a copy of the array
◦ IndexOf – returns the index of the first occurrence
of a value
 Array's Length
Each array has a fixed number of slots; they
are numbered from 0, 1, 2, and so on.
We can find out the number of slots an array
has using property Length.
int a[5];

a.Length is 5.
Basic usages of arrays

Array declaration and creation

Accessing elements in arrays

 Accessing elements
by indices
You can access elements in an array using their
indices.
Again, the first index is 0. 0 a[0]

0 a[1]
int a[5];
0 a[2]

a 0 a[3]

0 a[4]
 Small practice
What is the output of the following program?

int a[3];
a[0] = 5; a[1] = 10; a[2] = 150;
Cout<<a[0]<< a[1]<< a[2]);
a[0] += 5;
a[1] = 20;
a[2] = a[0] + a[1];
Cout <<“The new values”<<a[0]<< a[1]<< a[2]);

5 10 150
10 20 30
 Array one-dimensional
array
void Main() {
int sample[10];
int i;
for(i = 0; i < 10; i = i+1) {
sample[i] = i;
}
for(i = 0; i < 10; i = i+1) {
cout<<"sample[" << i<< "]: “<< sample[i];
}
}
}
 Declare an integer array
Quiz of 5 elements where the values
of each element is equal to its
index multiplied by 3
(i.e. first element=0, the
second=3,.. etc)
Then print them
 Compute the average of a
set of values
 void Main() {
int nums[10]; int avg = 0;

nums[0] = 99; nums[1] = 10;

nums[2] = 100; nums[3] = 18;
nums[4] = 78; nums[5] = 23;
nums[6] = 63; nums[7] = 9;
nums[8] = 87; nums[9] = 49;

for(int i=0; i < 10; i++)

avg = avg + nums[i];

avg = avg / 10;

cout<<"Average: “<< avg;
}
 Reverse an array into a
second array
 void Main() {
int i, j;
int nums1 [10], nums2[10];
for(i=0; i < nums1.Length; i++)
nums1[i] = i; // set the values of first array
cout<<“Original contents: ";
for(i=0; i < nums2.Length; i++)
cout<<nums1[i]<< " "; // print content of first array
// reverse and copy nums1 to nums2
for(i=0, j=nums1.Length-1; i < nums1.Length; i++, j--) {
nums2[j] = nums1[i];
}
cout<<“/n Reversed contents: ";
for(i=0; i < nums2.Length; i++)
cout<<nums2[i]<< " "; // print content of second array
}
Two-Dimensional
Representation

Two-dimensional structure
33
 Two-Dimensional Arrays
Declaration format
type identifier[integral value, integral value];
 Two integral values are required for a two-dimensional
array
 Number of rows is listed first
Data values placed in array must be of the same base
type
Example (create a 7x3 matrix)
◦ int calories [7, 3];
34
Two-Dimensional Arrays
(continued)
calories
reference
s address
of
calories[
0,0]

Two-dimensional calories array

35
 Two-Dimensional Arrays
(continued)
Length property gets total number of elements in all
dimensions
Cout<<calories.Length; // Returns 21
GetLength( ) – returns the number of rows or columns
◦ GetLength(0) returns number of rows
◦ GetLength(1) returns number of columns
Cout<< calories.GetLength(1); //Display 3 (columns)
Cout<< calories.GetLength(0); //Display 7 (rows)
Cout<< calories.Rank; // returns 2 (dimensions)
36
 Multi Dimensional Arrays
void Main()
{
const int rows = 4, columns = 3; // declare a 4x3 integer array

int rectangularArray[rows, columns];

for (int i = 0;i < rows;i++)
{
for (int j = 0;j<columns;j++)
{
rectangularArray[i,j] = I + j;
}
}
for (int i = 0;i < rows;i++)
{
for (int j = 0;j<columns;j++)
{
cout<<"rectangularArray[{0},{1}] = {2}", i, j, rectangularArray[i,j]);
}
}
}
How to write a general
?algorithm
 ?What is algorithm

 A finite set of instructions which accomplish a

particular task
A method or process to solve a problem
Transforms input of a problem to output
 Algorithm = input + process + output
 Algorithm development is an art – it needs
practice, practice and only practice!
 ?What is a good algorithm
 It must be correct
 It must be finite (in terms of time and size)
 It must terminate
 It must be unambiguous
 Which step is next?
 It must be space and time efficient
A program is an instance of an algorithm, written in some
specific programming language
 A simple algorithm
 Problem: Find maximum of a, b, c
 Algorithm
 Input = a, b, c
 Output = max
 Process
o Let max = a
o If b > max then
◦ max = b
o If c > max then
◦ max = c
o Display max Order is very important!!!
 Algorithm development: Basics
 Clearly identify:
 what output is required?
 what is the input?
 What steps are required to transform input into output
o The most crucial bit
o Needs problem solving skills
o A problem can be solved in many different ways
o Which solution, amongst the different possible solutions is optimal?
 ?How to express an algorithm
 A sequence of steps to solve a problem
 We need a way to express this sequence of steps
1. Natural language (NL) is an obvious choice, but not a good
choice. Why?
o NLs are notoriously ambiguous (unclear)
2. Programming language (PL) is another choice, but again not a
good choice. Why?
o Algorithm should be PL independent
 We need some balance
o We need PL independence
o We need clarity
o Pseudo-code provides the right balance
 ?What is Pseudo-code
 Pseudo-code is a short hand way of describing a
computer program
 Rather than using the specific syntax of a computer
language, more general wording is used
 It is a mixture of NL and PL expressions, in a
systematic way
 Using pseudo-code, it is easier for a non-programmer to
understand the general workings of the program
 Pseudo-code: General Guidelines
 Use PLs construct that are consistent with
modern high level languages, e.g. C++, Java, ...
 Use appropriate comments for clarity
 Be simple and precise
 Components of Pseudo-code
 Expressions
 Standard mathematical symbols are used
o Left arrow sign (←) as the assignment operator in assignment
statements (equivalent to the = operator in Java)
o Equal sign (=) as the equality relation in Boolean expressions
(equivalent to the "= =" relation in Java)
o For example
Sum ← 0
Sum ← Sum + 5

What is the final value of sum?

 Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
 Decision structures (if-then-else logic)
if condition then
true-actions
[else
false-actions]
We use indentation to indicate what actions should
be included in the true-actions and false-actions
For example
if marks > 50 then
print “Congratulation, you are passed!”
else
print “Sorry, you are failed!”
end if
 Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
 Loops (Repetition)
◦ Pre-condition loops
o While loops
◦ while condition do actions
◦ We use indentation to indicate what actions should be
included in the loop actions
◦ For example
while counter < 5 do
print “Welcome to data structure course!”
counter ← counter + 1
end while
What will be the output if counter is initialised to 0, 7?
 Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
 Loops (Repetition)
◦ Pre-condition loops
o For loops
◦ for variable-increment-definition do actions
◦ For example
for counter ← 0; counter < 5; counter ← counter + 2
do
print “Welcome to data structure course!”
end for

What will be the output?

 Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
 Loops (Repetition)
 Post-condition loops
o Do loops
◦ do actions while condition
◦ For example
do
print “Welcome to CS204!”
counter ← counter + 1
while counter < 5

What will be the output, if counter was initialised to 10?

The body of a post-condition loop must execute at least once

 Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
 Method declarations
◦ Return_type method_name (parameter_list) method_body
◦ For example
integer sum ( integer num1, integer num2)
start
result ← num1 + num2
end
 Method calls
 object.method (args)
 For example
mycalculator.sum(num1, num2)
 Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
 Method returns
 return value
 For example
integer sum ( integer num1, integer num2)
start
result ← num1 + num2
return result
end
 Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
Arrays

A[i] represents the i th cell in the array A.

The cells of an n-celled array A are indexed from

A[0] to A[n − 1]
 Algorithm Design: Practice
 Example 1: Determining even/odd number
 A number divisible by 2 is considered an even number,
while a number which is not divisible by 2 is considered an
odd number. Write pseudo-code to display first N odd/even
numbers.

 Example 2: Computing Weekly Wages

 Gross pay depends on the pay rate and the number of hours
worked per week. However, if you work more than 40 hours,
you get paid time-and-a-half for all hours worked over 40.
Write the pseudo-code to compute gross pay given pay rate
and hours worked
 Even/ Odd Numbers
Input range
for num←0; num<=range; num←num+1 do
 if num % 2 = 0 then
 print num is even
 else
 print num is odd
 endif
endfor
 Computing weekly wages
 Input hours_worked, pay_rate
 if hours_worked <= 40 then
 gross_pay ← pay_rate x hours_worked
 else
 basic_pay
← pay_rate x 40
 over_time ← hours_worked – 40
 over_time_pay ← 1.5 x pay_rate x over_time
 gross_pay ← basic_pay + over_time_pay
 endfor
 print gross_pay
 1. Write an algorithm to find the
largest of a set of numbers.
Homework You do not know the number
of numbers.
2. Write an algorithm in
pseudocode that finds the
average of (n) numbers.
For example numbers are
[4,5,14,20,3,6]s
#Examples in C
 Instantiate the array -2

A second line is necessary to (since it is an object

of System.Array type) and to determine the size of
the array.
names = new string[10];
You can combine these two statements into one
line when necessary to do
string[] names = new string[10];
 .Instantiate the array Cont -2

There are times when you will want to declare,

instantiate, and assign data to an array in one
statement. You can do this in C# using an
initialization list:

int[] numbers = new int[] {1,2,3,4,5};

 Direct access

Direct access involves referencing an array position

by index on the left-hand side of an assignment
statement:

Names[2] = "Raymond";
Sales[19] = 23123;
myName = names[2];
 Set the value of an array element

To set the value of an array element. The

method takes two arguments,
an index number and the value of the element.

names.SetValue[2, "Raymond"];
sales.SetValue[19, 23123];
 illustrates how to initialize
arrays

void Main() {
int intArray[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
for (int counter = 0; counter < intArray.Length; counter++)
{
Console.WriteLine("intArray[" + counter + "] = " + intArray[counter]);
}
// char arrays
char[] charArray = new char[] {'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o'};
for (int counter = 0; counter < charArray.Length; counter++)
{
Console.WriteLine("charArray[" + counter + "] = " + charArray[counter]);
}
// string arrays
string[] stringArray = {"Hello", "World"};
foreach (string myString in stringArray)
{
Console.WriteLine("myString = " + myString);
}
}
}
Comparing Strings
String Contains String
gets last array element
for-loops on array

uses foreach, array

for-loops on array
Join and Split String Array
loops over 2D string array
 ?How can I test if an array contains a certain value

string[] week = new string[7];

week[0] = "Sunday";
week[1] = "Monday";
week[2] = "Tuesday";
week[3] = "Wednsday";
week[4] = "Thursday";
week[5] = "friday";
week[6] = "Saturday";
string value = "Wednsday";
int pos = Array.IndexOf(week, value);
if (pos > -1)
MessageBox.Show(value + " exist !");
else
MessageBox.Show(value + " not exist !");
 Sorting Arrays

72
 Multidimensional Arrays
int[,] grades = new int[4,5];
declares a two-dimensional array,