COMPUTER

NETWORKS 1

Dr.K.SURESH BABU
M.TECH.,
PH.D.
Professor of
CSE
CISCOCertified Academy
Instructor(CCAI)
JNTUniversity
 SYLLABUS

UNIT - I: Network hardware, Network software, OSI,

TCP/IP Reference models, Example Networks: ARPANET,
Internet.
Physical Layer: Guided Transmission media: twisted pairs,
coaxial cable, fiber optics, Wireless transmission.
 NETWORKS

 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
 “Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous
computers
interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are
said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information.
 The connection need not be via a copper wire; fiber
optics,
microwaves, infrared, and communication satellites can also be
used.
 Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we will
see later.
They are usually connected together to make larger
 USES OF COMPUTER
NETWORKS

•Business
Applications
•Home Applications
•Mobile Users
•Social Issues
 Business Applications
 to distribute information throughout the company (resource
sharing). sharing physical resources such as printers, and tape
backup systems, is sharing information
 client-server model. It is widely used and
network usage.
forms the basis of much
 communication medium among
employees.email
which employees (electronic
generally use mail),
for a great deal of daily
 Telephone calls betweenemployees
communication. may be carried by
network instead of by the phone company. This technology is
telephonythe computer
or Voice over IP (VoIP) when Internet technology is
called IP
used.
 Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a
graphical
 doing business electronically, especially with customers and
This new model is called e-commerce (electronic commerce)
suppliers.
grown rapidly
computer in recent
screen
and it has
years.
 Home Applications

peer-to-peer communication
person-to-person communication
electronic commerce
entertainment.(game playing,)
 Mobile Users

Text messaging or texting

Smart phones,
GPS (Global Positioning System)
m-commerce
NFC (Near Field Communication)
 Social Issues

 With the good comes the bad, as this new-found freedom brings with
it many
unsolved social, political, and ethical issues.
 Social networks, message boards, content sharing sites, and a host
of other applications allow people to share their views with like-
minded individuals. As long as the subjects are restricted to
technical topics or hobbies like gardening, not too many problems
will arise.
 The trouble comes with topics that people actually care about, like
politics, religion, or sex. Views that are publicly posted may be
deeply offensive to some people. Worse yet, they may not be
politically correct. Furthermore, opinions need not be limited to
text; high-resolution color photographs and video clips are easily
shared over computer networks. Some people take a live-and-let-
live view, but others feel that posting certain material (e.g.,
verbal attacks on particular countries or religions, pornography,
etc.) is simply unacceptable and that such content must be
 Social Issues

•Network neutrality
•Digital Millennium
Copyright Act
•Profiling users
•Phishing
 Network Hardware

Types of Network based on size

The types of network are classified based upon the size, the area it
covers and its physical architecture. The three primary network
categories are LAN, WAN and MAN. Each network differs in their
characteristics such as distance, transmission speed, cables and
cost.

•Personal area networks

•Local area networks
•Metropolitan area networks
•Wide are networks
•The internet
 LAN (Local Area
Network)
 Group of interconnected computers within a
small area.(room,building, campus)
 Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files,
folders, printers, applications and other devices.
 Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally
used for connections. Due to short distances,
errors and noise are minimum.
 Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 mbps.
 Example: A computer lab in a school.
 MAN (Metropolitan Area
Network)
• Design to extend over a large area.
• Connecting number of LAN's to form larger
network, so that
resources can be shared.
• Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km.
• Owned by organization or individual.
• Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.
•Example: Organization with different branches located
in the city.
 WAN (Wide Area
Network)
• Are country and worldwide network. Contains
multiple LAN's and MAN's.
• Distinguished in terms of geographical range.
• Uses satellites and microwave relays.
• Data transfer rate depends upon the ISP
provider and
varies over the location. Best example is the
internet.
 Other types

WLAN (Wireless LAN) : A LAN that uses high frequency radio

waves for communication. Provides short range connectivity
with high speed data transmission.
PAN (Personal Area Network) : Network organized by the
individual user for its personal use.
SAN (Storage Area Network) : Connects server to data
storage devices via fiber optic cables
Classification of interconnected
processors by scale
 Network Software

•Protocol hierarchies
•Design issues for the layers
•Connection-oriented versus connectionless
service
•Service primitives
•Relationship of services to protocols
Protocol Hierarchies
Protocol Hierarchies
Protocol Hierarchies
Connection-Oriented Versus
Connectionless Service
 Service Primitives

Six service primitives that provide a

simple connection-oriented service
 Service Primitives

A simple client-server interaction

using acknowledged datagrams.
The Relationship of Services to
Protocols
 NETWORK MODELS

Computer networks are created by

different entities.
Standards are needed so that these
heterogeneous networks can communicate
with one another.
The two best-known standards are
The OSI model(7 Layered)
The TCP/IP Model(Internet model-4/5 Layered)
 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process of
sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there
were no services available from the post office.
Tasks involved in sending a letter
 1

OSI
MODEL
 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards

Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated
to worldwide agreement on international standards.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in
the late 1970s.
Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
 Introduction to OSI
Model 2

⚫ OSI model is based on the proposal

developed by the International Standards
Organization (ISO).

⚫ This model is called ISO OSI (Open

Systems Interconnection) Reference
model because it
deals with connecting open systems
(systems that are open for
communication with other systems)

⚫
 Principles on which OSI model was
designed: 3

⚫A layer should be created where

different level of abstraction is needed.
⚫Each layer should perform a well
defined function.
⚫The function of each layer should be
chosen according to the internationally
standardized protocols.
⚫The number of layers should be large
enough that distinct functions should
not be put in the same layer and small
enough that the architecture does not
become very complex.
Seven layers of the OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions

of each layer in the OSI model.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Physical layer
Physical Layer

3
 Physical Layer
8

⚫ It is the bottom layer of OSI

Model.
physic
connection
⚫ Itis between
responsible forthe
thedevices.
al Such
physical connection may be made by
actual
using twisted pair cable.

⚫ Itis concerned with transmitting bits

overa communication channel.
 Functions of Physical
Layer 9

⚫ Transforming bits into signals

⚫ Provides synchronization of bits by a
clock.
⚫ Physical layer manages the way a
device connects to network media.
⚫ It defines the transmission rate.
⚫ Itdefines the way in which the devices
are connected to the medium.
⚫ It provides physical topologies
⚫ It can use different techniques of
multiplexing.
 Physical Layer

 Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one

computer to the next
 Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for
transmission over media
 Defines how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the
data
 Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and
fiber optic standards.
Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything that can
be used to transmit data is defined on the Physical layer of the OSI
Model
 Device example: Hub
 Used to transmit data
Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
Data Link Layer

10
Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Hop-to-hop delivery
 Data Link
11
Layer
⚫ It is responsible for node-to-node
delivery of data.
⚫ It receives the data from network layer
and creates FRAMES , add physical
address to
these frames & pas them to physical
layer
⚫ It consist of 2 layers:
Logical Link Layer (LLC) :
Defines the methods and provides
addressing information for
communication between network devices.
Medium Access Control (MAC):
 Functions of Data Link
Layer 12

⚫ Framing : DLL divides the bits received

from N/W layer into frames. (Frame contains
all the
addressing information necessary to
travel from S to D).

⚫ Physical addressing: After creating

frames, DLL adds physical address of
sender/receiver (MAC address) in the
header of each frame.
Data Link Layer Example

13
 Functions of Data Link
Layer 14

⚫ Error Control: It provides the mechanism of

error control in which it detects
& retransmits
damaged or lost frames.

⚫ Access Control: When single comm.

Channel is shared by multiple devices,
MAC layer of DLL provides help to
determine which device has
control over the channel.
 Data Link Layer
 Is responsible for moving frames from node to node or
computer to computer
 Can move frames from one adjacent computer to another,
cannot move frames across routers
 Encapsulation = frame
 Requires MAC address or physical address
 Protocols defined include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP)
 Device example: Switch
 Two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access
Control
(MAC)
o Logical Link Control (LLC) –Data Link layer addressing, flow control,
address notification, error control
o Media Access Control (MAC) –Determines which computer has
▪ –Determines where one frame ends and the next one starts,
access to the network media at any given time
synchronizati
called frame
on
Network Layer

15
Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Source-to-destination delivery
 Network
16
Layer
⚫ It is responsible for the source to destination
delivery of a packet across multiple
networks.

⚫ If
two systems are attached to different
networks with devices like routers, then N/W
layer is used.

⚫ ThusDLL overseas the delivery of the packet

between the two systems on same network
and the
network layer ensures that the packet gets
 Functions of Network
17
Layer
⚫ Internetworking: It provides Internetworking.

⚫Logical Addressing: When packet is sent

outside the network, N/W layer adds Logical
(network) address of the sender & receiver to
each packet.
⚫ Network addresses are assigned to local
devices by n/w administrator and assigned
dynamically by special
server called DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol)

⚫Routing: When independent n/w are

connected to create internetwork several
 Network Layer

 Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the

network to the
other, called end-to-end communications
 Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses
 Device example: Router
 Routing is the ability of various network devices and their related
software to move data packets from source to destination
Transport Layer
18
Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
 Transport
19
Layer
⚫It is responsible for process-to-process
delivery of the entire message.

⚫TL looks after the delivery of entire message

considering all its packets & make sure that all
packets are in order. On the other hand n/w
layer treated each packet independently.

⚫At the receiver side, TL provides services to

application layer & takes services form n/w
layer.

⚫ At
the source side, TL receives message from
upper layer into packets and reassembles
 Transport
20
Layer
⚫ Transport Layer provides two types of
services:

Connection Oriented Transmission: In this

type of transmission the receiving devices
sends an acknowledge back to the source after
a packet or group of packet is received. It is
slower transmission method.

Connectionless Transmission: In this type

of transmission the receiving devices does
not sends an acknowledge back to the
 Functions of Transport
21
Layer of message into
⚫ Segmentation
packet & reassembly of packets
into message.

⚫Port addressing: Computers run

several processes. TL header include a
port address with each process.

⚫ FlowControl: Flow control facility

prevents the source form sending data
packets faster than the destination can
handle.
 Transport Layer

 Takes data from higher levels of OSI Model and breaks it into
segments that
 can
Conversely, reassembles
be sent to lower-leveldata segments
layers for data into data that higher-level
transmission
and applications
protocols can use
 Also puts segments in correct order (called sequencing ) so they
can be
reassembled in correct order at destination
 Concerned with the reliability of the transport of sent data
 May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure
destination received segments
 May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send
segments without assurance of delivery
 Uses port addressing
Session Layer
22
Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
 Session 23

Layer
⚫ Session layer is the fifth layer of OSI Model

⚫It has the responsibility of beginning,

maintaining and ending the communication
between two devices, called session.

⚫ It
also provides for orderly communication
between devices by regulating the flow of
data.
 Functions of Session 24

Layer
⚫Establishing, Maintaining and ending a
session: When sending device first contact with
receiving device, it sends syn (synchronization)
packet to establish a connection & determines the
order in which information will be sent. Receiver
sends ack (acknowledgement). So the session can be
set & end.

⚫ Dialog Control: This function determines that

which device will communicate first and the
amount of data
that will be sent.

⚫Dialog separation: Process of adding

 Session Layer

 Responsible for managing the dialog between networked devices

 Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
 Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between
devices
 Provides procedures for establishing checkpoints,
adjournment, termination, and restart or recovery
procedures
Presentation
Layer 25
Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
 Presentation
26
Layerlayer is the sixth
⚫Presentation
layer of OSI Model.

⚫It is concerned with the syntax &

semantics of the information
exchanged between the two devices.

⚫It was designed for data encryption,

decryption and compression.
 Functions of Presentation
27
⚫Data Presentation or Translation: Because
different computers use different encoding
Layer
systems. It ensures that the data being sent is in
the format that the recipient can process.

⚫Data Encryption: PL provides this facility by

which hides the information from everyone
except the person who originally sent the
recipien When
information & theencrypted
intended data arrives at
t. destination, PL the message.
decrypt
s⚫
Data Compression: PL shrinks large amount
of data into smaller pieces i.e. it reduces the size
of data.
 Presentation Layer

 Concerned with how data is presented to the network

 Handles three primary tasks: Translation, compression,
Encryption
Application
Layer 28
Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
 Application
29
Layeri.e. seventh layer of OSI
⚫ It is the topmost
Model.

⚫ It enables the user to access the network.

⚫It provides user interface & supports for

services such as e-mail, file transfer,
access to the world wide web.

⚫So it provides services to

different user applications.
 Functions of Application
30
Layer
⚫ Mail Services: This application provides
various e- mail services.

⚫File transfer & Access: It allows users

to access files in a remote host, to retrieve
files from remote
computer for use etc.

⚫ Remote log-in: A user can log into a

remote computer and access the
resources of that
computer.
 Application Layer

 Contains all services or protocols needed by application software

or
operating system to communicate on the network
 Examples
o –Firefox web browser uses HTTP (Hyper-Text Transport Protocol)

–E-mail program may use POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) to

read e-mails and SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) to send e-
mails
Summary of layers
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match

those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol suite
was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP is
compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is
made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and
application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
Introduction TCP/IP

■ The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known

as TCP/IP) is the set of communications
protocols
used for the Internet and other similar networks.
■ It is named from two of the most important protocols
in it:

❑ the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and

❑the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking

protocols defined in this standard.

 APPLICATION LAYER

■ This layer is comparable to the

application, presentation, and session
layers of the OSI model all combined
into one.
■It
provides a way for applications to have
access to networked services.
This layer also contains the high
■

level protocols. The main issue with

this layer is the ability to use both TCP
and
UDP protocols.
 Application
■ Layer
For example TFTP uses UDP because
usually on a LAN the physical links are
short enough to ensure quick and
reliable packet delivery without many
errors. SMTP instead uses TCP
because of the error checking
■ capabilities.
Since we consider our email
important information we would like
to ensure a safe delivery.
 Application Layer

■ UDP (User Datagram Protocol) - offering

a direct way to send and receive
datagrams over an IP network with
very few error recovery services.
■ TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) -

Simplified version of the FTP protocol

which has no security features.
 Application Layer

 Application layer protocols define the rules when implementing

specific
network applications
 Rely on the underlying layers to provide accurate and efficient data
delivery
 Typical protocols:
o FTP – File Transfer Protocol
▪ For file transfer
o Telnet – Remote terminal protocol
▪ For remote login on any other computer on the network
o SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
▪ For mail transfer
o HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
▪ For Web browsing

Encompasses same functions as these OSI Model layers

Application , Presentation, Session
 TRANSPORT LAYER

■ This layer acts as the delivery service

used by the application layer.
■ Again the two protocols used are TCP
and UDP.
■ The choice is made based on

the application's transmission

reliability requirements.
■ The transport layer also handles all

error detection and recovery.

 TRANSPORT LAYER

■ It uses checksums,
acknowledgements, and timeouts to
control transmissions and end to end
verification.
■
Unlike the OSI model, TCP/IP
treats reliability as an end-to-end
problem
 Transport Layer

 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol

o Does not mean it has a physical connection between sender and
receiver
o TCP provides the function to allow a connection virtually exists –

also called virtual circuit

 UDP provides the functions:
o Dividing a chunk of data into segments
o Reassembly segments into the original chunk
o Provide further the functions such as reordering and data resend
 Offering a reliable byte-stream delivery service
 Functions the same as the Transport layer in OSI
Synchronize source and destination computers to set up the session
between the respective computers
 INTERNET LAYER

■ This layer is also known as Internet layer. The

main purpose of this layer is to organize or handle
the movement of data on network.
■
By movement of data, we generally mean routing
of data over the network. The main protocol used
at this layer is IP. While ICMP(used by popular
‘ping’ command) and IGMP are also used at this
layer.
 NETWORKINTERFACE LAYER

■ This layer is also known as network interface

■ layer This layer normally consists of device
drivers in the
OS and the network interface card attached
■ to the system.
Both the device drivers and the network
interface card take care of the
communication details with the media being
■ used to transfer the data over the network.
 Internet Layer

The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets
and connects independent networks to transport the packets across
network boundaries.
The network layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting
 INTERNET LAYER

■ In most of the cases, this media is in

the form of cables.
■ Some of the famous protocols that are

used at this layer include ARP(Address

resolution protocol), PPP(Point to point
protocol) etc.
 Host-to-network layer

The Host-to-network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP

reference model. It combines the link layer and
the physical layer of the ISO/OSI model.
At this layer, data is transferred between adjacent network nodes in
a WAN or between nodes on the same LAN
 OSI Model Vs TCP/IP Model
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP stands for
OSI stands for Open Systems Transmission Control
Full Form Interconnection. Protocol/Internet Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Approach It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.

Delivery of the package is Delivery of the package is not

Delivery guaranteed in OSI Model. guaranteed in TCP/IP Model.

Replacement of tools and

Replacement changes can easily be done in Replacing the tools is not easy
this model. as it is in OSI Model.

It is less reliable than TCP/IP It is more reliable than OSI

Reliability Model. Model.
TCP/IP and OSI model
 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet

employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port,
and specific.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
Addresses in TCP/IP
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
In Figure below a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.
Physical addresses
Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

Figure below shows a part of an internet with two
routers connecting three LANs. Each device (computer
or router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical)
for each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
IP addresses
Figure below shows two computers communicating via
the Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.
Port addresses
Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one
decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.
 Example Networks

• ARPANET
• INTERNE
T
 ARPANET

• ARPANET stands for Advanced Research

Projects Agency NET.
• ARPANET was first network which
consisted of distributed control. It
was first to implement TCP/IP
protocols.
• It was basically beginning of Internet with
use of these technologies.
• It was designed with a basic idea in mind
that was to communicate with scientific
users among an institute or university.
 ARPANET

ARPANET was introduced in the year 1969

by Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) of US Department of Defense.
It was established using a bunch of PCs at
various colleges and sharing of information and
messages was done.
It was for playing as long separation
diversions and individuals were asked to
share their perspectives.
In the year 1980, ARPANET was handed
over to different military network, Defense
Data Network.
 Characteristics of
ARPANET :
Characteristics of ARPANET :
1.It is basically a type of WAN.
2.It used concept of Packet Switching Network.
3.It used Interface Message Processors(IMPs)
for sub- netting.
4.ARPANETs software was split into two
parts- a host and a subnet
 Advantages of
ARPANET :
•ARPANET was designed to service even in a
Nuclear Attack.
• It was used for collaborations through E-
mails.
•It created an advancement in transfer of
important files and data of defense.
 Limitations of ARPANET :

•Increased number of LAN connections

resulted in difficulty handling.
•It was unable to cope-up with
advancement in technology.
 ARPANET to INTERNET

Early ARPAnet
• 1971
• Email implemented
• 1973
• Email was 75% of the ARPAnet traffic
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) was developed
ARPAnet to Internet
• Transition Period 1971-1983
• Packet Switching developed and perfected
• Robust, fault-tolerant, efficient, survivable
• TCP/IP: Network of Networks realized on a large
scale
• The ability to connect different types of
networks
 INTERNET

Early Internet 1983-1989

• No web browsers, no web pages at all…
• Email
• FTP
• Early message board system (BB systems)
• Client-server applications
In 1989 came the WWW
• The ideas existed, but one man perfected and
implemented them
• WWW ideas
• URL concept – Documents, computers, virtual mailboxes,
networks,
programs, etc. can all have uniform identifier to help locate them
•Hypertext concept – Documents can have links to other
documents, just click the text
 INTERNET

Tim Berners-Lee
• A graduate of Oxford University
• wrote the first web client and server in 1990.
•His specifications of URIs, HTTP and HTML
implement the backbone of the WWW
WWW improved Internet
• On the Internet, you had to
• Know numeric IP addresses to locate servers
• Login anonymously or with a user account
• Know the folder hierarchy and file name of the
document/data.
• Location information shared via email
• If you didn’t have friends, you had no idea what
was on the