Course Title: General Psychology

Course Code: Psych 1011Cr.

Hr: 3(5 ECTS)
Target Group: All 1st Year Students
Instructor’s Name:

Mihretu Bekele (MA)

II . Course Description
 This introductory course will provide
students with an overview of the
current body of knowledge and the
science of psychology.

 This course examines the role of

environmental factors and the
interaction of nature and nurture in
determining behaviors and mental
processes.
III. Course Rationale
 The course General Psychology
encompasses the fundamental
concepts and principles of psychology
which have immense application to
human life problems.
 Hence, this course is intended to
introduce students to the basic
concepts of psychology and acquaint
them with how to apply psychological
knowledge, principles, and theories to
real life situation and problems.
IV. Learning Outcomes
Up on the completion of this Course,
students will be able to:
 Describe basic psychological concepts.
 Compare and contrast the major
theoretical perspectives in psychology.
 Discuss about sensation and perception
 Compare and contrast different learning
theories
 Summarize motivational and emotional
processes
 Discuss about basic notion of personality.
 V. Course Content
Chapter One: Essence of
Psychology
 Definition of Basic Concepts
 Goals of Psychology
 HistoricalBackground and major
perspective in Psychology
 Branches of Psychology
 Research Methods in Psychology
Chapter Two: Sensation and
Perception
o The meaning of sensation and
perception
o The sensory laws:
o Sensory threshold and sensory
adaptation
o Perception
o Selectivity of perception: Attention
o Form perception
o Depth perception
Chapter Three: Learning
o Definition, Principles and Characteristics
of Learning
 Definition of Learning
 Principles of Learning
 Characteristics of Learning
 Factors Influencing Learning
 Theories of Learning and their Applications
 Behavioral Theory of Learning
 Social Learning Theory
 Cognitive Learning Theory
Chapter Four: Memory and Forgetting
 Memory
 Meaning and Process Of Memory
 Stages of Memory
 Factors Affecting Memory
 Forgetting
 Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting
 Theories of Forgetting
 Improving Memory
Chapter Five: Motivation and Emotion
 Motivation
 Definition and Types of Motivation
 Theories of Motivation and their
Applications
 Conflict of Motives and Frustration
 Emotion
 Definition of Emotion
 Components of Emotion
 Theories of Emotion and their
Applications
Chapter Six: Personality
o Meaning of Personality
o Theories of Personality

A. Psychoanalytic Theory
B. Trait Theory
C. Humanistic Theory
Chapter Seven: Psychological
Disorders and Treatment Techniques

o Nature of Psychological Disorders

o Causes of Psychological Disorders

A. Biological Perspective
B. Psychological Perspective
o Types of Psychological Disorders
o Treatment Techniques
 Chapter Eight: Introduction to
Life Skills
o Definition and Nature of Life
Skills
o Components of Life Skills
o Goals of Life Skills
 Chapter Nine: Interpersonal and
Intrapersonal Skills
o Self Concept and Self Awareness
o Self-Esteem and Self-Confidence
o Self-Control
o Anger Management
o Emotional Intelligence and Managing
Emotion
o Stress, Coping with Stress and
Resilience
o Critical and Creative Thinking
 Chapter Ten: Academic Skills
o Time Management
o Note-taking and Study Skills
o Test-Taking Skill
o Test Anxiety and Overcoming
Test Anxiety
o Goal Setting
o Career Development Skill
 Chapter Eleven: Social Skills
o Understanding cultural Diversity
o Gender and Social Inclusion
o Interpersonal Communication Skills
o Social Influences
o Peer Pressure
o Assertiveness
o Conflict and Conflict Resolution
o Teamwork
o Overcoming Risky Behavior
 Chapter 1.
Introduction
( Essence of) to
Psychology
Chapter One: Introduction to ( Essence) of
Psychology
1.1. Definition
 Origin: Two Greek words
 Psyche which represents, Spirit, Soul , Mind
 logos refers to Study, Knowledge or Science

 Scientific Definition states that

 The scientific study of Human behavior
and mental processes
Key words in the definition
Science
 is a collection of data or information
 Psychology does not rely on common sense or

Scientific Characteristics
 is based on research and
Experiment
 has developed its own theories/
Principles
 employs scientific techniques to
study behavior
Behavior
 an activity of an organism
 1.2. Goals of Psychology
A. Description of Behavior
 Every behaviour has its own way of
occurring
 In describing behaviour, a psychologist
focuses on how, when and under what
conditions a behaviour occurs.
Examples:
 How does an angry person behaves?
 How do two people who are in love
interact
C. Explanation
 In explanation of behaviour, a
psychologist becomes concerned
about why behaviour occurs as it
does
 Every behaviour has its own causes.
No behaviour occurs without a cause.
Examples:
 why do people go to colleges/
universities?
 why do people marry?
 C. Prediction
 involves forecasting the
likelihood of a behaviour under
certain circumstances.
 Prediction of behaviours is
possible through the use of
theories or principles

D. Control ( Modification)
 involves changing a behaviour which
is anti social or unacceptable.
 For healthy functioning of society
and the individual, these kind of
negative (maladaptive ) behaviours
should be avoided
 In psychology, there are
psychological techniques to help an
individual avoid a maladaptive
behaviour.
1.3. History and Major Perspectives
in
Psychology
 Psychology has a short history as a
science and began as independent
science in 1879 in Germany by
Wilhelm Wundt who is considered
as the founder or father of Modern
Psychology.
 With the use of scientific methods,
different schools of thought
developed
1.3.1. Early Schools of Psychology
 School of psychology or thought refer
to a system or way of thinking about a
phenomenon.
A set of ideas or opinions that a group
of people share among themselves
 There are five major early schools of
thought
A. Structuralism
 views psychology as the study of
structures of the mind and is founded
by Wilhelm Titchener(1867-1927).
 The goal of structuralism is to find
out the units or elements of the mind
( what constitutes the mind) such as
sensations, feelings, thinking,
perception and images which are
considered as the building blocks of
the mind.
 The best known method of studying
this elements is known as
introspection:- looking inward in to
our consciousness
B. Functionalism
 Views psychology as the study of the
functions of the mind and was founded on
the work of William James (1848-1910)
 W. James was the first American
Psychologist and author of the first
psychology book.
 Focused on how the mind allows people
to function in the real world; how people
work, play, and the role of behavior in
helping people adapt to their
environment. (Ex; fear and how it helps
deal with emergency situations)
 Believed
that psychological processes
are adaptive and allow humans to
survive
 In
addition to introspection, he used
tests and questionnaires and believed
that
c. Gestalt Psychology
 Was founded by Max Wertheimer and
his colleagues in Germany.
 Emerged as a response to structuralism
and functionalism and believed that the
mind is not made up of combinations of
elements.
 Theyviewed the mind as greater than
and different from its parts and that
the mind must be seen as a result of
the whole pattern of sensory activity
and the relationship and organization
 Our perception (or understanding) of
objects is greater and more
meaningful than the individual
elements that make up our
perceptions
D. Behaviorism
 Isfounded by J.B. Watson and his
colleagues
 Assumes that the mind is an
internal , non visible and hidden
experience and is very subjective
and can not be the object of
scientific study
 Believes that psychology is the
study of observable and
measurable behavior which is
learned.
E. Psychoanalyses
 was founded by Sigmund Freud
((1856-1939)
 Believes that psychology must be
the study of the unconscious forces
of the mind which explains human
functioning
 based on his medical background ,
he believed that some physical
illnesses did not have medical or
bodily causes. Such illnesses are
caused by non physical or emotional
 Such cause remain hidden or
unconscious and aff ect behavior
 The unconscious consists of hidden
wishes, passions, hidden secrets,
conflict between desire and duty which
are not available to the conscious mind
 These hidden experience make
themselves known in dreams , slip of the
tongue, jokes and accidents which are
indications of what a person is truly
feeling
 Hypnoses and dream analyses are used
as a method.
1.3.2. Modern Schools of
Psychology
A. The Psychodynamic Perspective
 Ithas its origin in Freud’s theory of
psychoanalyses
 This approaches emphasizes the
 The influence of the unconscious mind
on behavior
 The role of childhood experiences on
adult behavior
 Therole of intrapersonal conflict in
behavior
B. Behavioral Perspective
 emphasizes the role learning play in
shaping the behavior of an organism.
It is concerned with how the
environment affects the person‘s
actions.
 is sometimes called the "black box"
approach in psychology because it
treats the mind as less useful in
understanding human behavior.
 The approach believes the field
should focus on observable behavior
C. Humanistic Perspective
 Emphasizes on the uniqueness of
human beings.
 Suggests that all individuals
naturally strive to grow, develop, and
be in control of their lives and
behavior.
 Humanistic psychologists maintain
that each of us has the capacity to
seek and reach fulfillment.
 The goal of humanistic psychology
was helping people to express
themselves creatively and achieve
their full potential or self-
actualization (developing the human
potential to its fullest
D. Cognitive Perspective
 IsConcerned about mental
processes and how people
remember, reason, solve problems,
explain experiences affects their
actions.
 Inthis view, thinking is information
processing and is compared with a
computer
E. Biological Perspective
 Focuses on studying how bodily
events or functioning of the body
affects behavior, feelings, and
thoughts
 This perspective underscores that
biology and behavior interact in a
complex way; biology affecting
behavior and behavior in turn
affecting biology
F. Socio Cultural Perspectives
 Itfocuses on the social and cultural
factors that affects human behavior.
As a fish cannot leave without
water, human behavior cannot be
understood without sociocultural
context (the social and cultural
environment) that people "Swim" in
every day.
 1.4. Branches (Subfields) in Psychology

 Psychology is a broad field, there are many

specialization under its umbrella
A. Developmental Psychology
 Studies how people develop overtime
thorough the process of maturation and
learning.
 studies age related changes through the life
span
 Aspects of Development( Physical, Cognitive,
Social, etc)
 Stages of Development( Infancy, Babyhood,
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age)
 B. Educational Psychology
 deals with the general process of education in
general. It tries to make use of psychological
knowledge in improving the teaching learning
process
 Learning is a central focal area

C. Counselling Psychology
 deals with providing counselling service to
people who are troubled by a problem in their
life.
 assists people on issues of personal
adjustment, vocational and career planning,
family life and may work in schools, hospitals,
clinics or offices
D. Personality Psychology
 Studies the ways in which people
develop a characteristic that makes
them unique
 studies individual differences in
personality and their effects on
behaviour.
E. Industrial( Organizational)
Psychology
 Studies human behaviour in the
workplace and how behaviour affects
production
F. Social Psychology
 It studies the role of social forces
in governing individual
behaviour.
 Examines the ways in which the
pattern of a person’s feeling,
thinking and acting is affected by
others
G. Cross Cultural Psychology
 Studies the ways in which context and
culture affects behavior, thought and
emotion. It is interested in determining
whether or not psychological
processes are universal or culture
specific
 The study of variability and invariance
under different cultural conditions
EX: Submissiveness and Aggressiveness
H. Forensic Psychology
 Is a branch of psychology that applies
principle in the legal system. It is
concerned with the study of such
issues as
o Is someone emotionally and mentally
capable to stand trial?
o How should a minor’s testimony be
handled in court?
I. Health Psychology
 Isthe study of psychological factors
that cause physical disease. It is
concerned with exploring the ways in
which behavior affects health.
J. Clinical Psychology
 isa field that applies psychological
principles to the prevention,
diagnosis, and treatment of
psychological disorders.
1.5. Research Methods in Psychology

 The research method that

psychologists use to study human
behaviour can be classified in to
several categories based on the
nature and purpose of the research.
 The major classifications include:-
Descriptive, Correlational and
Experimental
 1.4.1. Descriptive Methods
 Involves the systematic recording of
an observation of an event
A. Naturalistic Observation
 It is a systematic process of recording
the behavioural patterns of people,
objects and occurrences as they are
witnessed in the naturalistic
observation.
 Observer effect and observer bias
are major limitations of this method
B. The Survey Method
 Surveys require asking people who are
called respondents, for information,
using either verbal or written questions.
Interviews or questionnaires are utilized
to collect data on the telephone, face to
face and through other communication
media.
 Is useful to collect data from a large
group of people
 requires selecting a representative
sample
C. Case Study
 Case study is a prominent research
method in psychology that intensively
investigates one or a few situations in
detail over a long period of time.
 Examples
 studying the effect of isolation on
language development
 Generalization is limited
4.
1.4.2. Correlational Research
 Involves
studying the relationship
between two variables without
manipulating any conditions
 Causeand effect relationship is not
determined since variables are not
manipulated
Ex: Interest and Academic
achievement
Smoking and Lung cancer
1.4.3. Experimental Method
 is used when a researcher wants to
determine cause and effect
relationships between events or
variables
 Variables
 Variables in the experimental method
are attributes or characteristics of a
situation, person or a phenomenon
which may differ or fluctuate across
situations, persons or phenomena
1. Independent Variable
 Is a variable that produces effects on the
other variable
2. Dependent variable
 Is a variable that is affected by the
independent variable
 Groups in the Experimental Group
1. The experimental Group
 is the group to which the experimental
treatment or independent variable is given
2. The control ( comparison ) Group
 The group which is formed for comparison
purpose and receive no treatment
 Chapter 2:
Sensation and
Perception
2.1. Sensation
 Definition
 Is the process of detecting and
encoding stimulus energy in the world.
(santrock,2000)
 Is the stimulus detection process by
which our sense organs respond to and
translate environmental stimuli in to
nerve impulses that are sent to the
brain(Passer and Smith,2004)
 Sensory Receptors
 Receptor cells (accessory structures) in
 Transduction
 It is a process of converting incoming energy
in to neural activity. Just as a radio receives
energy and changes it in to sounds, the ears
receives sound energy and convert it in to
neural activity that people recognize as
voices, music and other auditory
experiences.
 Concepts ( laws) in Sensation
A. Sensory Threshold
 The lowest intensity at which a stimulus can
be detected 50 percent of the time.
 The level of sensitivity below which detection
of a stimulus is less likely.
 Detectionof a stimulus depends not
only on the intensity of a stimulus but
also such psychological factors like
response bias.
 Response bias is the readiness of a
person to detect and report the
presence of a particular stimulus.
Ex: You are more likely to detect a sound
in a dangerous neighborhood walking at
night than a neighborhood which you
think is safe
 B. Sensory Adaptation ( Habituation)
 A process through which responsiveness to an
unchanging stimulus decreases overtime.
 A gradual decrease in the sensitivity of the
sense organs to a constant stimulation.
2.2. Perception
 Is the process through which sensations are
interpreted using knowledge and
understanding of the world so that they
become meaningful experiences.
 Is the process of making meaning out of
sensation.
 The moment we sense, we automatically
perceive
 Basic Features of Perception
1. Perception is the creation of
experience.
 Sensory systems provide raw
materials from the environment and
we form experiences out of it.
2. Perception is selective
 Perception usually occurs in
selective attention. Our surrounding
holds a lot of information that seek
our attention.
 Unless we are able to filter out these
 External Factors that Affect Attention
1. Intensity( size)
 Intensity or magnitude refers to the degree
or the force with which a stimulus is
presented.
 Stimuli that occur in high intensity capture
our attention.
2. Novelty
 A novel stimulus (a stimulus that is different
or unusual) attracts people attention than an
ordinary stimulus. If you are walking on a
street, you would be more fascinated by a
new model car ( a hammer, for example)
passing by than a Volkswagen.
3. Movement
 Stimuli that make movement grab
our attention much more than a
stable, stationary and non moving
stimuli
4. Repetition
 Repetition of a stimulus involves
the frequency of a stimulus.
Whether or not we are attracted to
a stimulus is also determined by
the number of times the stimulus
5. Contrast (colour)
 Stimuli that are different in
colour attract our attention.
 When a stimulus deviates in its
appearance from other
surrounding stimuli, it captures
our attention.
 Internal( Psychological ) Factors that affect
Attention
1. Set or Expectancy
 refers to mental readiness to receive
certain kinds of sensory input
EX: A husband expecting an important
phone call is more likely to hear phone
calls than a wife who is concerned
about her baby crying.
2. Motives or Needs
 People are more likely to be attracted
to environmental experiences
 3. Perception has organization
and
structure
 Everything we perceive has its own
structure and form. To make sense
out of what we perceive, we must
know where one thing begins and
another ends
 This process of dividing up the world
occurs effortlessly (naturally) and
makes our perception more
meaningful ( Form Perception)
 Principles (laws) of
perceptual organization
 The brain uses structrues in
order to give pattern, shape and
form to our visual perception.
 It is based on these principles
that perceptual organization
becomes possible.
 1. The figure ground Principle
 This is a principle by which we
organize the perceptual field in to
stimuli that stand out (the figure)
and those that are left over ( the
ground).
 This principle states that certain
aspects of our visual world
become figure and others ground
o The figure
 Has its own shape
 Takes up a space
 Stands out as compared with the
ground
o The ground
 Has no shape and does not take up
space
 Refers to the surrounding space
This Photo by Unknown Author is
licensed under CC BY-SA
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under
CC BY
2. The principle of Closure
 This is a principle that states the brain
tends to fill in gaps in order to
perceive complete forms.
 People need to decipher less than
perfect images to make perceptions.
To help us do so, the brain tends to
finish what is unfinished, complete
what is incomplete.
. The principle of Proximity
3

 The principle of proximity is another

principle of giving form to visual
perception.
 This principle states that things that
are near each other tend to be
grouped together. The closer objects
or events are to one another, the
more likely they are to be perceived
as belonging together.
4. The principle of Similarity
 The principle of similarity states that
things that are alike in some way
(for example, in colour, shape or
size) tend to be perceived as
belonging together.
4. Perception is Constant under Changing
Sensory Information
 perception does not change when sensory
information about stimuli changes.
 Our perceptual hypothesis remains the same
when information we receive about stimuli
through the visual sense organ change in
colour, size or shape.
 Categories of Perceptual Constancy
1. Size Constancy
 refers to the perception that the size of
objects remains constant even though visual
information change with variations in
distance.
 2. Shape Constancy
 states that we continue to perceive objects as
having a constant shape even though the shape
of the retinal image changes when our point of
view changes.
 Viewing angle or position superficially changes
the shape of an object
3. Colour (Brightness) Constancy
 This principle states that the colour or brightness
of an object remains the same even though the
amount of light reflected on the objects change.
 Sometimes objects may take different colour or
brightness because of variations in light reflected
on them.
4. Location Constancy
 Location constancy states that the
location or position of stationary
objects is always the same even when
our eyes tell us it is moving.
 We perceive stationary objects as
remaining in the same place even
though the retinal image moves about
as we move our eyes, heads, and
bodies.
Chapter 3 : Learning
 Learning
3.1. Definition
 Learning is a relatively permanent change in
behaviour as a result of previous practice and
experience
3.1.1. Features( Attributes) of Learning
 Involves a change in behaviour
 Is a relatively permanent
 Changes due to maturation, illness or use of drugs
are not considered learning
 Cannot be observed directly
 Is based on practice
3.1.2.Principles of Learning
 Learning occurs effectively under
certain conditions:-
o People learn best when they are
physically, mentally and emotionally
ready to learn
o Learning occurs best when there is
meaningful practice and exercise
o Learning is strengthened when it is
associated with a pleasant feeling
o Things learned first create a strong
impression in the mind that is difficult
to erase.
o Things most recently learned are best
remembered
o Individuals must have some abilities
and skills to learn
 3.2. Factors that affect
learning
 Motivation
 Maturation
 Health condition
 Psychological wellbeing of the
learner
 Good working
conditions( comfortable
surroundings, distracting
 3.3. Theories of Learning
3.3.1. Behavioral Theories of
Learning
o Focuses on the stimulus response
associations
A. Classical conditioning ( Ivan
Pavlov)
 Classical conditioning is a process of
learning in which a neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with a natural
stimulus until it alone can produce a
similar response.
 Pavlov’s Experiment
 Basic Terms
 Neutral Stimulus
 Itrefers to a stimulus which has no
capacity to produce a certain response
initially but which can produce the
same natural reflex through
association with another natural
stimulus
 Natural( Unconditioned) Stimulus

 Thisis a stimulus which automatically

produces a response without learning.
 Conditioned Stimulus
 Theoriginally neutral stimulus which
has now acquired the power to evoke
the salivation response.
 Principles of Classical Conditioning
1. Extinction
A gradual disappearance of the
conditioned response
 when a conditioned stimulus is
presented alone without an
unconditioned stimulus, the
conditioned response will eventually
cease.
 2. Spontaneous Recovery
 isthe reappearance of the
conditioned response after a rest
period or period of lessened response.

3. Stimulus generalization
 occurs when a previously
unassociated or new stimulus that has
similar characteristics to the
previously associated stimulus elicits a
response that is the same or similar to
the previously associated response.
4. Stimulus Discrimination
 is the ability to differentiate
between a conditioned stimulus
and other stimuli that have not
been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
B. Operant ( Instrumental)
Conditioning
( B.F. Skinner)
 Is a process of learning in which the
probability of a behaviour is
strengthened or decreased based the
kind of consequences that occurs
after the behaviour.
 Principles of Operant conditioning
 Reinforcement (Reinforcer)
 Isa consequence or stimulus which
usually increases the probability of a
 Types of Reinforcer
A. Positive reinforcement
 refers to a pleasant stimulus that increases the
likelihood of a behavior.
 is further divided in to two types
 Primary Positive reinforcer
 refers to a stimulus which is vital for biological
survival. Examples: food, water, sleep, air etc.
 Secondary Positive reinforcer
 refers to a stimulus which is pleasant but not
essential for survival. Example : a university degree
Types of Reinforcer
B. Negative Reinforcement
 Is a painful or aversive stimulus
which increases a behaviour
when it is avoided.
 A response or behaviour is
strengthened by stopping,
removing, or avoiding a negative
or aversive stimulus.
 Punishment ( Punisher)
 is the process by which a stimulus or
event weakens or reduces the
probability of the response that it
follows.
 Itinvolves the presentation of
aversive stimulus or the removal of a
pleasant one in order to decrease the
probability that an operant behaviour
will occur again.
 Types of Punisher
1. Positive punishment
 sometimes known as presentation or
application punishment involves the
presentation of unpleasant stimulus after
a bad behaviour
2. Negative Punishment
A negative punishment or sometimes
known as removal or withdrawal
punishment involves the removal or
withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus after a
bad behaviour
 Like
reinforcers, punishment can also
be primary or secondary.
1. Primary Punishers
 Arestimuli or conditions which are
naturally or inherently unpleasant like
pain, extreme cold, or heat
2. Secondary Punishes
 Are stimuli or conditions which
happen to be unpleasant as a result
of learning like demerits, demotion,
criticism, etc.
 Factors in Punishment
 Thepresence and absence of certain
factors affect the effectiveness of
punishment. These factors include:
A. Immediacy
 Refers
to the time interval between
the behavior and the punishment. The
sooner the punishment is
administered the better.
B. Consistency
 Theconsequence of a behavior must
be predictable on the part of the
C. Intensity or Balance
 This
refers to the strength of the
punishment in light of the
misbehavior. The punishment
generally is assumed to be
proportional with the misbehavior
D. Love oriented Punishment
 Punishment must focus on the
behavior not on the person
 Shaping
 The process of teaching a complex
behavior by rewarding closer and
closer approximations of the desired
behavior.
 In operant conditioning, behaviors are
rewarded when they occur.
 But when behaviors are less likely to
occur in the first place we start by
reinforcing any behavior that is
similar with the behavior you want
them to learn.
 Schedules of Reinforcement
 Involves the program or arrangement of
providing a positive reinforcement.
 Basically involves two categories
A.Continuous reinforcement schedule
 is the provision of reinforcement on
continuous bases
B. Non continuous( partial,
intermittent)
schedule
 is the provision of reinforcement to
some of the behaviours selectively
Types of Partial Reinforcement
Schedules
 Types of Partial Reinforcement
Schedules
1. Fixed Interval schedule
 is an intermittent schedule of
reinforcement in which a reinforcer is
delivered for a response after constant
and fixed period of time.
EX: Salary
2. Variable Interval Schedule
 is an intermittent schedule in which a
reinforcer is delivered for a response
after a variable period of time
3. Fixed Ratio Schedule
 is an intermittent schedule in which
reinforcement occurs only after a fixed
number of responses.
 In order to receive a reward, it is necessary
for the organism to produce a certain fixed
amount of behaviour
A salesperson who must sell a specific
number of items before getting a
commission and a factory worker who must
produce a specific number of products
before earning a given wage are both on
fixed ratio schedules.
4. Variable Ratio Schedule
 isan intermittent schedule in which
reinforcement occurs after a variable
number of responses.
C. Social (observational ) learning
(ALBERT BANDURA)
 isa process of learning in which an individual
learns new responses by observing the
behaviour of another rather than through direct
experience.
 Learning can occur not only by doing and
association but also by observing or watching
what others do
 Principles (concepts) in social learning
 Model
 refersto a person who demonstrates to the
learner how a behaviour is performed.
 Vicarious reinforcement( conditioning)
 isan indirect reinforcement that the learner
observes the model receiving and which
encourages the learner to imitate the
behaviour of the model in order to receive a
similar reinforcement on future occasions.
 Steps (elements) of social
learning
1. Attention
 Attention involves focusing on the
behaviour of the model.
2. Retention
 Retention involves the recall of
whatever is observed. Attention
without retention is meaningless.
3. Duplication
 This
step involves performing the
behaviour like the model. Motivation
4. Motivation or expectation of
reinforcement.
 The learner keeps on imitating the
behaviour of the model only when he
is motivated or expects to receive
reinforcement sometime in the
future.
Chapter 4: Memory and Forgetting
 Information Processing Model
(Richard Atkinson and Richard
Shiffrin (1968)

 Suggests that in order for information

to become permanent in memory, it
must pass through three stages of
mental processing:
 This model sometimes known as the
three box model analyses the memory
systems in these three stages.
 Memory

 Memory is the retention of

information/what is learned earlier
over time.
 Itis the way in which we record the
past for later use in the present
 Memory Processes
 arethe mental activities we perform
to put information into memory, to
keep it there, and to make use of it
later. This involves three basic steps:
1. Encoding
 Convertingsensory input into a form
that can be processed and deposited
in the memory
2. Storage
 It is the location in memory system in
which material is saved. Storage is the
persistence of information in memory.
3.Retrieval
 is the point at which one tries to
remember a particular memory trace from
among all the others we have stored.
 In retrieval, material in memory storage is
located, brought into awareness and used.
 Stages/ Structures of Memory
1. Sensory Register
 Is an initial /entry way of storage
 information is lost without attention
within seconds
2. Short term Memory (STM)
 Has a limited capacity to store information
 Information is lost without Rehearsal
 Rehearsal
 is the process of repeating, activating,
renewing or refreshing information to keep
it in memory.
Types of Rehearsal
A. Maintenance rehearsal
 This kind of rehearsal involves the rote
repetition of a material in order to
maintain it.
 B. Elaborative rehearsal
 It involves making associations or
connections between the new
information we want to remember with
familiar already existing information in
memory.
 Is also known as working memory,
immediate memory, active memory and
primary memory
3. The Long term Memory( LTM)
 Has unlimited capacity to store
information
 Stores Information
permanently( Indefinite time)
 Information can also be lost due to
interference
 Interference
 is the process through which either the
storage or retrieval of information is
impaired by the presence of other
information
Types of Interference
1. Proactive interference
 occurs when previously stored
material interferes with the ability to
remember similar, more recently
learned material
2. Retroactive interference
 occurs when recently stored
materials interferes with the ability
to remember similar and previously
stored material.
 Contains a large amount of
information which can be classified in
to three categories ( Subsystems)
 Types of Memory in the LTM

1. Declarative/ Explicit Memory

 the conscious recollection of information
such as specific facts or events that can be
verbally communicated.
 Itis further subdivided into semantic and
episodic memories.
 A. Semantic memory
 This is a memory of general
knowledge, including facts, rules,
concepts and propositions and
conceptual knowledge
B. Episodic Memory
 is internal representation of
personally experienced events.
 Is Autobiographical in nature
 Semanticand episodic memory are
known as declarative or explicit
memory since they can be
communicated verbally
2. Non-declarative/ Implicit memory-
 refers
to type of memory in which
behavior is affected by prior
experience without that experience
being consciously recollected.
 One of the most important kinds of
implicit memory is procedural memory.
A. Procedural memory
 is a memory of knowing how.
 This memory is about the
performance of activities,
 Serial Position Effect
 Is a theory that explains an
individual remembers information
differently depending on the order
the information is presented.
 If you are shown a list of items and
are then asked immediately to
recall them, your recall will be best
for items at the beginning of the
list (the primacy effect) and at the
end of the list (the recency effect).
 Factors that Affect Memory
 A number of factors determine the
degree of memory.
1. Age of the person ( Maturation)
 Youngsters can remember better
than the aged.
2. Good health
A person with good health can retain
the learnt material better than a
person with poor health
3.Will to remember( Interest)
 Willingness to remember helps for
better retention.
4. Over learning
 Experiments have proved that over
learning will lead to better memory.
5. Meaningfulness of the Material
 Meaningful materials remain in our
memory for longer period than for
nonsense material
6. Sleep or Rest
 Sleepor rest immediately after
learning strengthens connections in
the brain and helps for clear
memory.
 Forgetting
 refers to the loss of information
from memory or inability to
retrieve or remember information.

 Theories ( Causes) of
Forgetting
1. Decay ( Disuse) theory
 states that information which is
not used gradually disintegrates
2. Interference theory
 Accordingto this theory, people forget
not because memories are actually lost
from memory, but because other
information gets in the way of what we
want to remember.
3. Displacement (New for old)
theory
 Newinformation entering memory
can wipe out old information
 Short
term memory has a limited
capacity and can only hold a small
amount of information at one time.
 Once the memory is full, new
information will replace the old one
4. Motivated Forgetting
( Repression)
 According to this theory, We forget
because we want to forget
5. Cue dependent Forgetting
( Retrieval Failure)
 Is the failure to recall information
without memory cues.
 Information stored in the memory
is retrieved by way of association
with other memories.
Chapter 5: Motivation and Emotion
5.1. Motivation
 is an internal process in an
individual that arouses,
maintains and directs
behaviour towards a goal.
 It is what moves people to
do what they do
Features of Motivation
 Motivation has many
characteristics. Some of these
are:-
1. Motivation usually arouses
behaviour.
 When a person or an
organism becomes motivated,
it/he will be more likely to
perform behaviour
2. Motivation also produces a consistent and
regular behaviour in an organism.
 When a person becomes motivated he/she
becomes not only aroused to take action,
but also interested to show a behaviour
until a goal is achieved.
3. Motivation guides behaviour in a specific
ways that helps the person achieve his goal.

 People become selective of the behaviour

they perform when they become
motivated
 THEORIES( Approaches to ) OF
MOTIVATION
 There are many causes of
behaviour. People perform
behaviour for a number of reasons.
 Psychologists have been studying
the causes of behaviours and have
developed various theories that
explain the why( sources) of these
behaviours.
1. Incentive Theory( Pull theory)
 The incentive theory of motivation focuses on
external factors to explain why behaviour occurs
 The incentive theory is also sometimes known
as the pull theories of motivation.
2. Drive reduction Theory( Push theory)
 The drive reduction theory of motivation states
that behaviours are a result of a biological
deficiency that must be reduced for biological
survival.
 This theory is sometimes described as the push
theory of motivation since behaviour is pushed
towards goals by driving states within the
person or animal.
3. The instinct Theory
 According to the instinct theory,
behaviour is a result of a natural
tendency.
 An instinct is an innate or unlearned
biological pattern of behaviour that
occurs uniformly across a species.
 For example, human infants come in to
the world equipped with some unlearned
instincts such as crying, sucking that
helps them get what they want.
 Are caused by biologically determined
and innate patterns.
4. Cognitive theory of Motivation
 Suggest that motivation is a result of people’s
thoughts, beliefs ,expectations and goals.

 Draw a key difference between Extrinsic and

Intrinsic Motivation
 ExtrinsicMotivation
 An extrinsic motivation involves
engaging in behaviour to obtain an
external reward or avoid punishment.
 When a person becomes extrinsically
motivated he performs behaviour for
sake of getting what he wants.
 Intrinsic Motivation
 Involves engaging in behaviours for
their own sake. A person with intrinsic
motivation performs behaviour out of
interest.
 theact itself is rewarding or satisfying
in some internal manner
 Biological Motives( Unlearned
Motives)
 are also called survival motives for
they need to be satisfied to continue
to live. Ex: Hunger, thirst, need for
air, etc
 Learned Motives
 Are also called social motives
because they develop from social or
environmental interactions. They
develop as a result of societal
rewards and punishment.
5. Humanistic Theory of Motivation
( Abraham Maslow)
 Abraham Maslow, a humanistic
psychologist, suggested that human
behaviour is influenced by a hierarchy
of five classes of needs or motives.
 Needs or motives at the lowest level
of the hierarchy, he argues, must be
at least partially satisfied before
people can be motivated by higher
needs.
 These motives or needs are ranked
and arranged according to their
importance to survival.
 From the bottom to the top of
Maslow’s hierarchy, these five
motives are as follows:
 Frustration
 refers to a negative mental state caused by the
blocking of behaviour directed toward a goal. If
motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional
feelings and behaviour often result.
 Sources of Frustration

1. Environmental Frustration
 By making it difficult or impossible for a person
to attain a goal, environmental obstacles can
frustrate the satisfaction of motives.
 An obstacle may be something physical, such as
a locked door or lack of money. Or it may be
people like your parents, teachers or police
officers who prevent you from achieving your
goals
 2. Personal Frustration
 Unattainable goals can be important
sources of frustration.
 These are largely learned goals that
cannot be achieved because they are
beyond a person’s abilities
3. Conflict Produced Frustration
 This occurs when the expression of one
motive interferes with the expression of
other motives. When people are caught
between a need to express different
conflicting motives, they experience
frustration
 Conflict
 refers to negative emotional
state (depression, anger,
anxiety, etc) that develop when
a person is unable to make a
choice between two or more
alternatives.
 Types of Motivational Conflict
1. Approach –Approach Conflict
 is a conflict between two positive
goals—goals that are equally
attractive at the same time.
 An individual may be torn between
the idea of going to a political rally or
a movie which he likes to do equally.
2. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
 This kind of conflict arises when a
person must select one of two
undesirable alternatives.
 In this type of motivational conflict,
people are required to choose
between two negative goals which
they both dislike.
 Such conflicts are capsuled in the
saying ‘’ caught between the devil
and the deep blue sea ‘’
3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict
 This is a type of conflict in which a person is
both attracted and repelled by the same
goal object.
 Because of the positive valence of the goal,
the person approaches it, but as it is
approached, the negative valence becomes
stronger.
 In this type of conflict, a single decision
involves a positive and negative aspect.
 The closer you are to something appealing,
the stronger your desire to approach it, the
closer you are to something unpleasant, the
stronger your desire to flee.
 5.2. Emotions
 Refer simply to feelings
 A state of arousal involving
biological changes (brain
activation), expressive behaviour
and mental experience.
Basic Emotions
 Defining characteristics
(features) of Emotion
1. Emotion has three levels or
components. These aspects of
emotion are the biological,
behavioural and cognitive.
A. The biological Level
( Component)
 refers to the bodily and physical
changes that accompany certain
emotions
B. The Behavioral Level
( Component)
 emotion refers to all the things we do
or the activities we perform under the
influence of a certain emotion.
 The mechanisms of expressing emotion
like facial expressions, gestures, eye
contact, vocal qualities, etc are
behavioural components of emotions.
C. Cognitive Level ( Component)
 it involves interpreting the subjective
feeling by giving it a label
2. Emotional experience elicits an
action tendency; a motivation to
behave in certain ways.
 An individual who is under a certain
emotion is more likely to take
action.
3. Emotion is usually transitory. It
tends to have a relatively clear
beginning and end and a relatively
short duration.
 4. Emotions differ in their magnitude and
pleasantness. Different emotions can be
felt in different magnitudes from time to
time.
 Similarly, the same person may feel the
same emotion in different degrees of
strength in different situations.
5. Emotional experience is elicited partly
by the cognitive evaluation of a situation
and how that relates to our goals.
 The same event may elicit different
emotions in different people depending
on their interpretation of the event.
 6. Emotions and their expressions
facilitate communication between
and among people.
 We are capable of understanding
the feelings of others and how we
should interact through the use of
non verbal cues like facial
expressions, body movements, etc.
 Theories of Emotion
1. The James Lange theory of
Emotion
 States that emotional experience is
a reaction to bodily events occurring
as a result of an external situation (“I
feel sad because I am crying”).
2. The Canon Bard theory of
Emotion
 State
that emotion and physiological
arousal occur more or less at the
same time.
 fear
and the bodily reactions are
experienced at the same time-not
one after the other
Chapter 6: Personality
 6.1. Meaning of Personality
 Personality is a distinctive and relatively
enduring ways of thinking, feeling and
acting that characterize a person’s
responses to life situations.
 The pattern of enduring characteristics
that produce consistency and
individuality in a given person
( Feldman, R.S.,2011)
 Enduring attributes that are
representative of an individual’s
behaviour.(Wittig,A.F.,2001)
 6.2.1. The psychoanalytic theory of
personality ( Sigmund Freud)
 Major features of psychoanalyses
 Psychoanalyses has the following
major defining characteristics as a
theory of personality.
1. It focuses on the unconscious
intrapsychic
dynamics- the movement of
psychological
energy within the mind.
 2. It focuses in the importance and primacy
of
the first five years of life.
 Thetheory assumes that adult personality
and ongoing problems are formed primarily
by experiences in early childhood.
 Thechild is the father of the man, as the
saying goes.
3. Personality is a result of conflict between
different personality systems or
structures.
 Personality Structures
 In Freud’s theory, personality consists
of three major systems: the Id, the
Superego and the Ego.
 Any actions we take or problems we
have results from t he interactions or
degree of balance among these
systems.
 The Id
 As one major component of personality
the id involves a number of
characteristics.
1. It is a reservoir of unconscious psychological
and physical needs and urges. It contains all our
instinctual and biological needs and behaviour.
2. It is a system of personality that begins to
operate at birth. Unlike the other structures, the
id is born with the individual.
3. The major focus of the id is to get as much
pleasure as possible. If it feels good, do it.
4. It does not tolerate delay of gratifications of
needs
4. It is oblivious to rules and regulations
 The super ego( The Moral Watchdog)
o Major Features
1. The super ego contains all the moral codes that
we obtain from society
2. The super ego gradually develops after birth as

the individual gains knowledge and experience

from the environment.
3.The focus of the super ego is to gain perfection
in
every activity of the individual. It aspires for and
expects the individual to be perfect.
4. The super ego is also ignorant of the
objective
reality of the individual. It gives no
allowances
for failures and wrongdoings.
5. It uses reinforcement techniques in
order to
enforce its guidelines.
 The reward comes in the form of
pride , satisfaction and mental peace.
 The punishment comes in the form of
guilt, shame and self blame,
 The Ego( The Executive Director)
o Major Features
1. The ego serves as a referee or mediator
between the needs of the id and the
demands of society.
2. The ego is not ignorant or blind to the
objective reality in its attempt to satisfy
the divergent needs of the id and the
super ego.
 It operates on the reality principle.
 It resorts to defense mechanisms when
it fails to reconcile the two
 Defence Mechanisms
 refer to methods used by the ego to prevent
anxiety or threatening thoughts .
 Features of Defence Mechanisms
1. Are useful to reduce anxiety and make us feel
normal again. They only become harmful if or
when they are used excessively.
2. Are misrepresentations or distortions of reality. In
order to justify one’s action which is wrong in the
eyes of the superego, the ego has to deny,
distort
or twist the reality.
 Types of Defence Mechanism
1. Repression Or Motivated
Forgetting
 Isthe rejection of unpleasant feelings
and experiences from conscious
awareness.
 Itinvolves pushing or blocking
threatening memories, urges or ideas
from consciousness.
2. Rationalization
 Isjustifying wrong actions by producing
acceptable reasons and explanations.
3. Reaction Formation
 Involves repressing a negative feeling
by exaggerating the opposite feeling. It
occurs when a feeling that produces
anxiety is transformed in to its
opposites.
 It is a reversal of motives. A woman
who is afraid to admit to herself that
she fears her husband may instead
cling to the belief that she loves him
deeply.
4. Projection
 Is the process of shifting or attributing
one’s own undesirable feelings to
others.
 By accepting that others also have the
same problems like us , we tend to be
ok.
 It involves blaming others for the
same mistakes or problems we have.
5.Displacement
 Occurs when people direct their
emotions (especially anger) toward
things, animals or other people that are
not the real object of their feelings.
 Itinvolves using a substitute outlet for
an emotion.
6.2.2. The Trait Theory
Major Assumptions
1. Personality exists along a continuum. It
is different in the relative strength
2. Personality is relatively enduring
3. People
differ in how much of a
particular train they possess.
 Traits
 Are consistent personality
characteristics and behaviors displayed
in different situations.
 2. The Big five Theory of Personality
 is associated with the work of
Raymond Cattell
 is also known as the five factor model
 is known as OCEAN for short
1. Openness
A person’s willingness to try new
things and be open to new
experiences.
 curiosity , flexibility and imaginative
tendency
2. Consciousness
 refers to a person‘s organization and
motivation
 are careful about being in places on
time and careful with belongings as
well.
3. Extraversion
 all people could be divided into two
personality types: extraverts and
introverts ( Carl Jung)
 Extraverts are outgoing and sociable, fun-
loving whereas introverts are more solitary
and dislike being the center of attention.
4. Agreeableness
 refers to the basic emotional style of a
person, who may be easygoing, friendly,
helpful, cooperative and pleasant (at the
high end of the scale) or hostile, self
centered and hard to get along with (at the
low end).
5. Neuroticism / Emotional stability
 refers to emotional instability or
stability. People who are excessively
worried, overanxious and moody
would score high on this dimension,
whereas those who are more even-
tempered and calm could score low.
 6.2.3.
Humanistic theory of
personality
( Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow)

 Emphasize people‘s inherent

goodness and their tendency to move
toward higher levels of functioning
instead of seeing people as controlled
by the unconscious.
 Assume people have conscious, self-
motivated ability to change and
improve.
 The self concept is an important element
in this theory
 The real self
 One‘s actual perception of characteristics,
traits, and abilities
 The ideal self
 The perception of what one should be or
would like to be
 Rogers believed that when the real self
and the ideal self are very close or similar
to each other, people feel competent and
capable. Otherwise anxiety develops

 Group Assignment
 Project Title: Cultural Diversity
 Guidelines of the Project
1. What is cultural Diversity?
2. What are the uses of cultural diversity?
3. What is culture shock and give practical
examples in the Ethiopian context
4. Discuss ways of appreciating or promoting
cultural diversity
 Notes
 Dateof Submission: 2 weeks from the date of
submission of the assignment
 Page limit: Not more than 6 pages
 Presentation: Any group member may be
selected for the presentation by the instructor
and members should actively take part in the
presentation.
 Presentation Date: To be decided later
Chapter 7: Psychological Disorders
and Treatment Techniques
7.1. Definition
 Is a condition characterized by abnormal
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
 Is also known as abnormal behavior,
maladaptive behavior, mental illness
 Psychopathology is the study of
psychological disorders, including their
symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and
treatment
 Defining criteria
1. It deviates from the typical behavior in society (
(Deviation from normality)
2. It disrupts the personal and social life of an
individual ( mal adaptiveness or adjustment
problems)
3.A personal feelings of stress, anxiety, tension
and other unpleasant emotions ( personal
distress)
 7.2. Causes of Psychological Disorders
1. The biological Perspective
 abnormalities in the function of chemicals in the
brain, called neurotransmitters, may contribute
to many psychological disorders.
 Over activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine,
perhaps caused by an overabundance of certain
dopamine receptors in the brain, has been linked
to the bizarre symptoms of schizophrenia.
 2. Psychological Perspectives
 Three approaches are usually examined in this
perspective

2.1. The Psychoanalytic Approach

 Abnormal behavior is caused by the ego's
inability to manage the conflict between the
opposing demands of the id and the superego
2.2. The Learning Approach
 Most mental and emotional disorders arise from
inadequate or inappropriate learning.
 People acquire abnormal behaviors through the
various kinds of learning
2.3. The Cognitive Approach
 Self-defeating thoughts lead to the development
of negative emotions and self-destructive
behaviors.
 Thinking patterns in one way or another affects
our emotional and behavioral wellbeing in either
positive or negative ways.
 7.3. Types of Psychological Disorders
1. Mood Disorder
 arecharacterized by a series of changes in
mood from depressed to elevated feelings
causing disruption to life activities.
 general emotional state or mood is distorted or
inconsistent with your circumstances and
interferes with your ability to function
 Types of Mood Disorder
1. Major(Clinical) Depression
 is characterized by diminished
interest in activities , difficulty
concentrating, feelings of
hopelessness and thoughts of suicide
22.
2. Dysthymia
 often considered a lesser, but more
persistent form of depression
3. Bipolar Disorder ( Manic-
Depression)
 ischaracterized by periods of
extreme highs (called mania) and
extreme lows as in Major Depression.
2. Anxiety Disorder
 Is a disorder that involves excessive, irrational
fear or anxiety.
 The occurrence of anxiety without an obvious
external cause that affect daily functioning.
 are the most common of mental disorders and
affect nearly 30 percent of adults
 Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress and can be
beneficial in some situations
 People with this disorder may respond to the
anxiety by avoiding situations( Job performance,
School work and personal relationship)
 Types of Anxiety Disorder
1. Panic Disorder
 is a type of anxiety disorder
characterized by a series of panic
attacks where the person feels
he/she is going to be attacked by
something or someone and feels an
imminent sense of death. It is
accompanied by Severe physical
reactions( heart beat, sweating,
shortness of breath, etc.
2. Agoraphobia
 Is fear of crowded or unfamiliar
spaces where the person feels
escape or help might not be
available. The person usually
becomes housebound. It may result
from phobic disorder
3. Specific(Simple) Phobia
 refersto an intense and irrational fear of an
object, person or place .
 Ex: Zoophobia; hydrophobia, autophobia,
acrophobia
4. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
(OCD)
 Characterizedby obsessions (thoughts
which seem uncontrollable) and
compulsions (behaviors which act to
reduce the obsession)
 These obsessions and compulsions are
disruptive to the person's everyday
life, with sometimes hours being spent
each day repeating things, such as
checking, counting, cleaning, or
bathing.
5. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD)
 Occurs only after a person is
exposed to a traumatic event where
their life or someone else's life is
threatened. The most common
examples are war, natural disasters,
major accidents, and severe child
abuse
 The disorder develops into an
intense fear of related situations,
avoidance of these situations,
3. Personality Disorder
 Isa rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking,
functioning and behaving.
 characterized by an enduring pattern of thinking,
feeling, and behaving which is significantly
different from the person's culture and results in
negative consequences.
 maladaptive or inflexible ways of dealing with
others and one's environment
 Some Examples of Personality Disorder
 Antisocial Personality
 Is characterized by a persistent disregard for and
violation of others’ rights and lack of empathy.
 Paranoid
 Is characterized by distrusting others; perceiving
others as having evil motives , high degree of
suspicion or being mistrustful
 Schizotypal
 is characterized by intense discomfort in close
relationships , distorted thinking and eccentric
behavior
 Narcissitic Personality Disorder
 Refers to an exaggerated feelings of
self, need for excessive attention and
admiration and pattern of
grandiosity( unrealistic sense of
superiority)
 7.4 Treatment Techniques
 Treatment of mental illnesses can take various
forms. They can include
 Medication,
 Talk- therapy,
 a combination of both,
 and can last only one session or take many years
to complete.
 Treatment Approaches

Psychotherapy
 Involves Providing psychological treatment to
individuals with some kind of psychological
problems .
 Goal of Psychotherapy
 to help the client reduce negative symptoms,
 gain insight into why these symptoms occurred
 work through those issues,
 and reduce the emergence of the symptoms in the
future.
 Issues to be considered in Psychotherapy
o Empathy
 Involves being able to understand his or her
client's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors
o Being Neutral
 The therapist must be non judgmental in his
approach.
 If the therapist is judgmental, the client does not
feel safe talking about similar issues again.
 Treatment Modalities
 A therapist and a client
 Therapy is most often thought of as a one-on-one
relationship between a client or patient and a
therapist.
 Group Therapy
 individuals suffering from similar illnesses or
having similar issues meet together with one or
two therapists.
 Is helpful in making clients develop the feeling to
belong, understood, and know that there is hope
 Family/ Couple therapy
 Inthis type of treatment, the issues to be worked
on center around the relationship.
 There is often an educational component such as
communication training, and couples and families
are encouraged to work together as a team rather
than against each other.
 The therapist's job is to facilitate healthy
interaction, encourage the couple or family to
gain insight into their own behaviors, and to
teach the members to listen to and respect each
other.
CHAPTER 8: INTRODUCTION TO
LIFE SKILLS
 Life Skills
8.1. Definition
 abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that
enable individuals to deal effectively with the
demands and challenges of everyday life
 refer to those skills needed by an individual to
operate effectively in society.
 Involve those personal and social skills that help
a person to function competently and confidently
with oneself and others.
 Types of life skills include
1.Livelihood or vocational skills
2. Practical health related skills
3. Physical skills
4. Skills related to behavior and
interaction (psychosocial skills)
8.2. Components of Life Skills
1. Critical thinking
2. Self- confidence
3. Self- esteem
4. Decision making
5. Interpersonal relationship
6. Reflective communication
7. Peer Resistance
8. Knowing rights and duties
9. Problem solving
 8.3. Goals of life skills

 Tolead a smooth and successful life at home,

work place and in social relationship
Chapter 9: Intra personal and Interpersonal
Skills
 1. Self Concept
 It refers to a favorable or unfavorable attitude towards
the self
 Itis the concept the individual has of
himself/herself as a physical, social, and spiritual
or moral being
 ishow an individual views himself based on their
habits, skills and temperament.
 A mental picture of who you are as a person.
For example, beliefs such as "I am a good friend"
or "I am a kind person" are part of an overall self-
concept
 Features of self Concept
1. Permanence
 It is relatively permanent and may change with
life experiences.
2. Multidimensionality
 Itrefers to perception of the self in a number of
aspects such as academics, gender roles, ethnicity,
etc
 3. Bases for Actions
 Itguides our actions, motivations, expectations
and goals for future
 The self is made of three components:
A. The natural self
 refers to the biological qualities that can not be
changed. One’s height ,color and other inborn
qualities are part of the natural self.
 B. The learned self
 refers to the activities, behaviors and qualities
one has developed through practice and
interaction with the outside world.
C. The choosing self
 refers to the choices or aspirations one would
like to achieve or become
 2. Self- Awareness
 Is the knowledge or understanding of oneself.
 It refers to the ability to have a clear picture of
one’s strengths and weaknesses, values and
attitudes towards life.
 Areas of Self Awareness
o Personality
 refers to a unique and distinct pattern of thinking,
feeling or acting
o Values
 refer to the things that matter to us in life. What
we consider to be good, desirable or proper is our
values.
o Body Image
 It refers to the person’s perception of his/her body
internally and externally.
 Some Ways of Building Self Awareness

1. Take feedback from others

2. Look at yourself objectively
3. Know your strengths and weaknesses
3. Self-Confidence
a belief in one personal worth and likelihood of
succeeding.
a belief in one’s own judgment, ability , power,
decisions ,etc.
 itis a combination of self esteem and genera self
efficacy.
 General Points
 Though successful experience contributes to
overall confidence, confidence varies across
situations
 Confidence and courage are different in that
confidence operates in the realm of the known
whereas courage operates in the unknown
 Factors that cause lack of self confidence
A. Experience
 We often develop feelings of inferiority and
hopelessness through various negative life
experiences at home, school, at the job, etc. lack
of a healthy and supportive environment at home
may cause the development of lack of
confidence.
B. Dwelling unnecessarily on negative events
C. Setting unrealistic goals in life
 Attributes of self confidence
 Assertiveness, √ Pride
 optimism, √ Independence
 eagerness, √ Trust
 affection, √ Emotional maturity
 The ability to handle criticism,
 Attributes of lack of self confidence
√ Self doubt,
√ Submissiveness,
√ Isolation,
√ Over conformity,
√ Sensitivity to criticism,
√ Feelings of inferiority,
√ Depression
5. Self Control
 Is
being in charge of your emotions, thoughts,
words and actions in the face of temptations
 Isthe ability to take control of one’s emotions
and desires or the expressions of them in one’s
behavior especially in difficult situations
 Isa cognitive process that is necessary for
regulating one's behavior in order to achieve
specific goals.
 Is also known as self discipline
 Examples
 cookie but you use your willpower to avoid
eating it because you know it isn't good for you.
 General Techniques of Self Control
1. A can do Attitude
 Viewing ourselves as free and
responsible for our actions is the
foundation for self-discipline.
2. Goal Setting
 One has to have a goal. Goals basically guide
our choices. The more specific the goal, the
better able people are to reach it.
 For example, instead of pursuing the goal of
“being healthy,” a person may adopt the goal of
“walking at least 30 minutes every day,” which
is more concrete and easier to monitor
3. Pre commit
 Being able to commit yourself to your goals will
help a lot when you actually attempt to reach
them.
 If you can commit to a decision before making
it, it should be much easier to make.
4. Use rewards
 Using rewards can really help with your self-
control. If we know that there is something at
the end of your goal to reward you, we are
normally more likely to do it.
6. Anger Management
 Anger is a state of emotion where a person is
irritated by block of interests, loss of possession
or threats to personality.
 Techniques for Anger Management
1.Recognize anger as a signal of vulnerability
2. When angry, think or do something that will
make you feel more valuable, i.e., worthy of
appreciation.
3. Do not trust your judgment when angry .
4. Strive to understand other people’s
perspectives.
5. Know your physical and mental resources.
Anger is more likely to occur when tired,
hungry, sick, confused, anxious, preoccupied,
distracted, or overwhelmed.
7. Stress and Coping with Stress
 Stressis a negative emotional and physiological
process that occurs as individuals try to adjust or
deal with stressors.
 Stressors are environmental circumstances that
disrupt or threaten to disrupt individuals’ daily
functioning and cause people to make
adjustments.
 Common causes or sources of Stress
A. Daily life events
 Regular and common events that occur in life
such as marriage, divorce, death, pregnancy,
job change, sex difficulties, detention,
retirement, being fired from work, etc.
B. Catastrophic events
 Catastrophic events are sudden, unexpected,
potentially life-threatening experiences or
traumas. Accidents, natural disasters, war,
physical or sexual assault are examples of
catastrophic events that could cause stress.
C. Biological causes or conditions
 Biological causes of stress are usually related to
physical and health related stressors that cause
stress. Such factors involve illness, sleep
disturbance, etc.
 Coping with Stress
 There are two ways of dealing with stress:
1. Problem Focused Strategies
 A problem focused strategy deals with facing
one’s problems and trying to solve them
(Richard Lazarus (1993)
 Going to a study skill centre to take part in a
training programme or visiting a counsellor
when you have a problem studying
2. Emotion Focused Strategies
 Involvesresponding to stress in an emotional
manner especially using defence mechanisms.
 In this strategy, we might avoid something,
rationalize what has happened to us, deny it is
occurring, laugh it off, or call on our religious
faith for support.
 Avoiding going to class believing the class does
not matter, deny that you are having a problem
when you have a problem studying
9. Resilience
 Is the process of adapting well in the face of
adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or significant
sources of stress.
 Is the ability to mentally or emotionally cope with
a crisis or to return to pre-crisis status quickly.
 Resilience Strategies
 Optimism
 The ability to regulate emotions,
 The ability to see failure as a form of helpful
feedback
10. Critical and Creative Thinking
 Critical Thinking
 Is the ability to think clearly and rationally.
 Is making reasoned judgments that are logical
and well-thought out
 Is also regarded as intellectually engaged
 Areas of Critical Thinking Skills
1. Analytical
 Is the ability to carefully examine something,
whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text.
2. Communication
 sharing your conclusions with your employers
or with a group of colleagues. ..
3. Creativity.
 Is a personal, imaginative thinking
which produces a new, novel and useful solution
9.8. Problem solving and Decision Making
 Problem Solving
 A problem
a gap between a present situation and a
desired goal
 Nature of a Problem
 Isa central part of human life and can not be
avoided
 Can be clearly or ill defined
 Problem Solving
 is a process in which we perceive and resolve
a gap between a present situation and a
desired goal,
 Steps in Problem solving
1. Recognize or identify the problem.
2. Define and represent the problem mentally.
3. Develop a solution strategy alternatives and

select the best one.

4. Organize knowledge about the problem and
avail the necessary resources.
5. Allocate mental and physical resources for
solving the problem.
6. Monitor his or her progress toward the goal.
7. Evaluate the solution for accuracy.
 Decision Making
 is the process of making choices by
identifying a decision, gathering information,
and assessing alternative resolutions.
 Is choosing a course of action
Chapter 10. Academic Skills
 Success in campus life depends on a number of
skills
The most important skills involve
 Time Management Skills
 Note taking Skills
 Test Taking Skills
 Goal Setting
 Career Development
10.1. Time Management
 is the ability to plan and control how someone
spends the hours in a day to accomplish one’s
goals effectively.
 Features of Time Management
 Is non renewable communal resource
 Requires assigning time to domains of life;
work, home, social life, hobbies
 Must be considered as an asset like other
resources
 Create difference in people.

 Time Management Strategies ( Chapman)
1. Know how you spend time
2. Set priorities
3. Use a planning tool
4. Get organized
5. Schedule your time appropriately
6. Delegate – get help from others
7. Stop procrastinating
8. Manage external time wasters
9. Avoid multi-tasking
10.2. Note Taking and Study Skills
 Succeeding in learning depends in part on taking
note skills
 General Strategies
1. Be organized
 Before Class
 have the necessary materials before class
 Determine the topic, review past notes, readings
 Prepare questions from the readings
 During Class
 Make your notes brief and focus on the pain
points
 It is better to listen and get the information later.
 After Class
 Review notes as soon as possible to make
connections
 Discuss the notes with another class mate
 Common Note Taking Skills
1. The Cornell Method
 breaks the pages in to three sections( Cue
column, note taking column and Summary)
2. Outlining
 Putting lecture notes to the left margin of the
page and specific information underneath
3. Charting
 is for courses that require comparisons/contrasts
of specific dates, places, people, events,
10.3. Test Taking Skills
 There are no agreed up on test taking skills
among scholars
 General Suggestions
1. Practice predicting and answering test questions
2. Examine previous tests to identify strengths and
weaknesses
3. Find out what kind of test it will be (objective,
essay, or a combination of both
4. Be organized in advance
 Be sure of the time and place
 What you are expected to bring with you
 Get to the test site early
5. Get plenty of sleep the night before the exam.
6. Tell yourself you will do well - and you will!

Chapter 11. Social Skills
11.1. Cultural Diversity
 Itinvolves a condition in which a range of
people form different background live and
interact together
 Is also known as multiculturalism
 Ways of Managing Diversity
1. Increasing understanding by interaction
2. Avoid imposing inconsistent values
3. Understand limitations in language. Language is
not sign of intellectual capacity
4. Advocate materials that are representative of
various cultures in different contexts
5. Intervene appropriately in situations of cultural
insensitivity
6. Being proactive in listening, accepting and
welcoming people and ideas that are different
11.2. Gender and Social Inclusion
 Sex
 Refers to a biological state of being a man or a
women
 Gender
 refers to all the behaviors, responsibilities and
expectations of society based on sex
 Gender Inclusion
 refers to the practice of enabling both sexes
benefit from education, economy, leadership,
development programs.
 11.3. Interpersonal Communication Skills
 is the process by which people exchange
information, feelings, and meaning through
verbal and non-verbal messages
 It is face-to-face communication
 11.4. Social Influence
 is a process in which the behavior of an
individual influences the way another person
 Examples of social influence
 Persuasion, Compliance
 11.5. Peer Pressure
 is the influence to go along with the beliefs and
actions of one‘s peers.
 may be positive or negative depending on the
behavior of the person under pressure
 Positive Peer Pressure
 results in good behaviors in school, sports,
helping those in need
 uses encouraging words and expressions
 Negative Peer Pressure
 Results in behaviors that are harmful(using
drugs, misbehaving in class, stealing, making
fun of someone, bullying)
 Itmay involve threats, bribes, teasing, and
name-calling
 How to Handle Peer Pressure
1. Avoid people or situations that don't feel right
2. Spend time with people who respect your
decisions and won't put unfair pressure
3. Evaluate the pros and cons of engaging in a
behavior
4. Remember that you can't (and don't have to)
please everyone or be liked by everyone
5. When a situation appears to be unavoidable, use
the ‘’delay tactic’’
6. It's OK to use an excuse if the truth is too
challenging( saying no to a drink)
7. Take a friend who supports you along if you are
going to be in a pressure-filled situation
8. Stand up for others when you see them being
pressured. "Bystander intervention"
 11.6.Conflict and Conflict Resolution
 Conflict
 is incompatibility of goals or values between two
or more people resulting in antagonistic feelings.
 is common( inevitable)
 is neither good nor bad
 may be realistic or perceived by the parties
involved.
 Sources of Conflict ( Daniel Katz)
 Three sources
1. Economic conflict
 involves competing motives to attain scarce
resources
2. Value conflict
 Involves differences in ways of life, ideologies,
preferences, principles and practices that people
believe in.
3. Power conflict
 occurs when each party wishes to maintain or
maximize the amount of influence that it exerts in
the relationship and the social setting.
 Levels of Conflict
1. Intrapersonal Conflict
 conflict between opposing motives or ideas
within a person
2. Interpersonal conflict
 occurs when two people have incompatible
needs, goals, or approaches in their relationship.
. Intergroup conflict
3

 occurs between collections of people such as

ethnic or racial groups, departments .
4. Multi-party Conflict
 occurs between more groups in society.
5. International conflict
 occurs between states at the global level.
 Conflict Resolution
 Three general Outcomes(Blake, Shepard &
Mouton, 1964).
1. Win-lose approach
 Is a situation in which one party wins and the
other loses.
 Is less likely to be accepted voluntarily
2. Lose-lose strategy
 Is a situation in which one party wins and the
other loses
3. Win-win approach
 is a conscious and systematic attempt to
maximize the goals of both parties through
collaborative problem solving.