FUNDAMENTALS

OF INFORMATION
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY
(ICT)
UNIT II
Aditya Rajesh More
What is computer networking?

• Networking, or computer networking, is the process of connecting two or more computing devices, such
as desktop computers, mobile devices, routers or applications, to enable the transmission and exchange
of information and resources.
• Before contemporary networking practices, engineers would have to physically move computers to share
data between devices, which was an unpleasant task at a time when computers were large and unwieldy.
To simplify the process (especially for government workers), the Department of Defense funded the
creation of the first functioning computer network (eventually named ARPANET) in the late 1960s.

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Key networking components and devices

• IP address: An IP address is the unique number assigned to every network device in an Internet Protocol
(IP) network; each IP address identifies the device’s host network and its location on the network. When
one device sends data to another, the data includes a “header” that includes the IP addresses of both the
sending and receiving devices.

• Nodes: A node is a network connection point that can receive, send, create or store data. It’s essentially
any network device—computers, printers, modems, bridges or switches—that can recognize, process and
transmit information to another network node. Each node requires some form of identification (such an
IP or MAC address) to receive access to the network.

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Key networking components and devices

• Routers: A router is a physical or virtual device that sends data “packets” between networks. Routers
analyze the data within packets to determine the best transmission path and use sophisticated routing
algorithms to forward data packets until they reach their destination node.

• Switches: A switch is a device that connects network devices and manages node-to-node communication
across a network, making sure that data packets reach their intended destination. Unlike routers, which
send information between networks, switches send information between nodes within a network.

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Key networking components and devices

• Ports: A port indicates a specific connection between network devices, with each port identified by a
number. If an IP address is analogous to a hotel address, then ports are the suites and room numbers.
Computers use port numbers to determine which application, service or process should receive which
messages.

• Gateways: Gateways are hardware devices that facilitate communication between two different networks.
Routers, firewalls and other gateway devices use rate converters, protocol translators and other
technologies to make inter-network communication possible between otherwise incompatible devices.

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Key networking components and devices

• An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique identifier assigned to each device connected to a
network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It serves two main purposes:
 Identifying a host or network interface: Each device on a network is assigned an IP address that acts
as its unique identifier, allowing it to communicate with other devices.
 Location addressing: An IP address helps in routing the data to and from the correct location on the
network.
• Versions:
 IPv4: Uses a 32-bit address format, divided into four segments (octets) separated by dots. Example:
192.168.1.1.
 IPv6: Uses a 128-bit address format, divided into eight groups of four hexadecimal digits separated
by colons. Example: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.

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Classification of IP Address

• The Private IP Address of a system is the IP address that is used to communicate within the same
network. Using private IP data or information can be sent or received within the same network. The
router basically assigns these types of addresses to the device. Unique private IP Addresses are provided
to every device that is present on the network.

• The Public IP Address of a system is the IP address that is used to communicate outside the network. A
public IP address is basically assigned by the ISP (Internet Service Provider).

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Classification of IP Address

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Classification of IP Address

• A static IP address is a fixed, unchanging address assigned to a device. It is manually configured and
remains constant over time. This stability is crucial for certain network devices and services. For
instance, servers hosting websites, email systems, or DNS services often use static IP addresses because
it ensures that their addresses do not change, allowing clients to reliably access these services.

• A dynamic IP address is assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server and can
change over time. When a device connects to the network, the DHCP server automatically assigns it an
available IP address from a pool of addresses. This assignment process is efficient and convenient, as it
eliminates the need for manual configuration of each device’s IP address.

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Classification of IP Address

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Classification of IP Address

• A static IP address is a fixed, unchanging address assigned to a device. It is manually configured and
remains constant over time. This stability is crucial for certain network devices and services. For
instance, servers hosting websites, email systems, or DNS services often use static IP addresses because
it ensures that their addresses do not change, allowing clients to reliably access these services.

• A dynamic IP address is assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server and can
change over time. When a device connects to the network, the DHCP server automatically assigns it an
available IP address from a pool of addresses. This assignment process is efficient and convenient, as it
eliminates the need for manual configuration of each device’s IP address.

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Classification of IP Address

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MAC Address

• A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier assigned to a network interface controller
(NIC) for use as a network address in communications within a network segment. This identifier is used
in most network technologies, including Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

Key Characteristics of a MAC Address:

 Uniqueness:
Each MAC address is unique to the device's network interface. It is usually burned into the hardware by
the manufacturer, which ensures that no two devices have the same MAC address on the same network.

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MAC Address

 Format:
A MAC address is typically represented as six pairs of hexadecimal digits, separated by colons or hyphens.
For example: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E or 00-1A-2B-3C-4D-5E.
The address is 48 bits long, with the first 24 bits representing the manufacturer (known as the
Organizationally Unique Identifier, or OUI) and the last 24 bits assigned by the manufacturer to uniquely
identify the device.

 Layer in Networking:
The MAC address operates at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. It is used to ensure that data
packets are delivered to the correct hardware device on a local network.

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MAC Address

 Purpose:
• Local Communication: MAC addresses are used to identify devices on the same local network.
When a device wants to communicate with another device on the same network, it uses the MAC
address to ensure the data reaches the correct recipient.
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): In IP networks, when a device knows the IP address it wants to
communicate with but not the MAC address, it uses ARP to map the IP address to the corresponding
MAC address.

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OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model

• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used to understand and
standardize the functions of a telecommunication or computing system. The model divides these
functions into seven distinct layers, each of which serves a specific purpose and interacts with the layers
directly above and below it.

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OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model

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OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model

1. Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between network nodes. It
defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the devices, and is
responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking care of
bit rate control.

2. Data Link Layer

• The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-connected nodes on a
network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to destination. This layer is
composed of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols, performs error
checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to
connect devices and define permissions to transmit and receive data.
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OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model

3. Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets, and
reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering the best path
across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet Protocol addresses)
to route packets to a destination node.

4. Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into “segments” on the
transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turning it back into
data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a rate
that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and error control,

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OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model

5. Session Layer
• The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is responsible for
opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being transferred, and closing
them when communication ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints during a data transfer—if
the session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from the last checkpoint.

6. Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices should encode,
encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The presentation layer takes any
data transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over the session layer.

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OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model

7. Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides
protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few
examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System
(DNS).

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OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model

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TCP/IP Model

• The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the Internet.
• This model defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication between
devices.
• It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application
Layer.
• Each layer has specific functions that help manage different aspects of network communication, making
it essential for understanding and working with modern networks.

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TCP/IP Model

• Application layer.
The application layer is the top layer and provides applications with standardized data exchange. Its
protocols include HTTP, FTP, Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3), SMTP, DNS, Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol and SNMP. At the application layer, the payload is the actual application data.

• Transport layer.
The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end communications across the network. TCP
handles communications between hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability. The
transport protocols include TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is sometimes used instead of
TCP for special purposes.

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TCP/IP Model

• Internet layer.
The internet layer, also called the network layer, deals with packets and connects independent networks to
transport the packets across network boundaries. The network layer protocols are IP and Internet Control
Message Protocol, which are used for error reporting.

• Network link layer.

The network link layer, also known as the network interface layer or data link layer, consists of protocols
that operate only on a link -- the network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network. The
protocols in this lowest layer include Ethernet for local area networks and Address Resolution Protocol.

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TCP/IP Model

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Protocols and Ports

What is protocol?
• Internet protocols are a set of rules and conventions that govern how data is transmitted and received
over the internet. They define the standards for communication between devices and networks.

What is network port?

• A network port is a communication endpoint in a computer network. It is a software construct that
allows networked devices or applications to send and receive data.
• Network ports are identified by a number, and each number is associated with a specific protocol or
service.
• These port numbers can range from 0 to 65,535.

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Protocols and Ports

What do you mean by port number?

• When a network communication from the internet or another source arrives at a server, its port number
can be used to identify the particular process to which it should be passed.
• Every device connected to a network has a set of standardized ports with a unique number.
• These are reserved numbers for specific protocols and the functions that go along with them. For
instance, communications sent over the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) always end up on port 80,
which is one of the most frequently used ports.

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Protocols and Ports

• Well-known ports (0-1023): These are reserved for widely-used services and protocols. For example,
port 80 is commonly used for HTTP (web) traffic, port 25 for SMTP (email), and port 22 for SSH
(secure shell).
• Registered ports (1024-49151): These are assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
to specific software applications or services. They are commonly used by less well-known services and
applications.
• Dynamic or private ports (49152-65535): These are available for use by any application or service. They
are typically used for ephemeral or temporary connections initiated by client applications.

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Protocols and Ports

• Well-known ports (0-1023): These are reserved for widely-used services and protocols. For example,
port 80 is commonly used for HTTP (web) traffic, port 25 for SMTP (email), and port 22 for SSH
(secure shell).
• Registered ports (1024-49151): These are assigned by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
to specific software applications or services. They are commonly used by less well-known services and
applications.
• Dynamic or private ports (49152-65535): These are available for use by any application or service. They
are typically used for ephemeral or temporary connections initiated by client applications.

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Protocols and Ports
Port
Method Service Full Form Description
Number
20 TCP FTP Data File Transfer Protocol Data Used for transferring data in active mode of the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
21 TCP FTP Control File Transfer Protocol Control Handles FTP commands and responses, managing file transfers and directory listings.
Provides secure command-line access, file transfers (via SCP and SFTP), and remote
22 TCP SSH Secure Shell
administration.

23 TCP Telnet Telnet Offers unencrypted command-line access to remote systems; considered insecure for sensitive data.

25 TCP SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Handles the sending and routing of email messages between servers and from clients to servers.

Translates domain names into IP addresses for network routing; supports both queries (UDP) and
53 TCP/UDP DNS Domain Name System
zone transfers (TCP).
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
67 UDP DHCP Server Listens for client requests to assign IP addresses dynamically and manage IP address allocation.
Server
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Sends requests to obtain an IP address from a DHCP server; used by devices on a network to
68 UDP DHCP Client
Client configure themselves automatically.
Facilitates simple, unauthenticated file transfers; used in environments where minimal overhead is
69 UDP TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol
required.
Transfers web page content and resources; the foundation of data communication on the World
80 TCP HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Wide Web.
Retrieves emails from a server to a local client; typically removes emails from the server after
110 TCP POP3 Post Office Protocol version 3
download.
Synchronizes the clocks of devices across a network, ensuring accurate timekeeping for logging
123 UDP NTP Network Time Protocol
and coordination.

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Protocols and Ports
Port
Method Service Full Form Description
Number
Retrieves and manages email on a server; supports multiple devices accessing the same mailbox and
143 TCP IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
keeps emails on the server.
Provides secure web traffic using SSL/TLS encryption, ensuring confidentiality and integrity of web
443 TCP HTTPS Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
communications.
Collects and forwards log and event messages from network devices and servers for centralized
514 UDP Syslog System Logging Protocol
monitoring.
SMTP
587 TCP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Submission Handles secure email submission from clients to mail servers over TLS.
Submission

993 TCP IMAPS Internet Message Access Protocol Secure Securely retrieves email from a server using SSL/TLS encryption, ensuring privacy and security.

Securely retrieves email from a server using SSL/TLS encryption; similar to POP3 but with added
995 TCP POP3S Post Office Protocol version 3 Secure
security.

3306 TCP MySQL My Structured Query Language Used by MySQL databases for client connections and database management.

Allows remote desktop access to Windows systems, enabling users to control their computers
3389 TCP RDP Remote Desktop Protocol
remotely.

5432 TCP PostgreSQL Post Structured Query Language Used by PostgreSQL databases for client connections and database queries.

Enables remote desktop access using the Virtual Network Computing protocol, allowing users to
5900 TCP VNC Virtual Network Computing
control their desktops from afar.
HTTP An alternative port for HTTP traffic, often used for web proxies, development servers, and
8080 TCP Hypertext Transfer Protocol Alternative
Alternative alternative web services.
HTTPS Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
8443 TCP An alternative port for secure HTTPS traffic, used by some services for secure web communication.
Alternative Alternative

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Network Devices

• 1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to amplifies (i.e., regenerates) the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to which
the signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by
bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-
port device.

• 2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot
filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all
hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best
path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

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Network Devices

Types of Hub
 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay the signal
along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used to extend
the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the active hub.
These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to
extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities. They also
provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic
passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

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Network Devices

• 3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality
of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port,
thus making it a 2 port device.

• 4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only.

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Network Devices

Types of Switch
 Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not offer advanced
configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as an expansion to a larger
network.
 Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as VLANs, QoS, and link
aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks and allow for centralized management.
 Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are typically easier to set
up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.

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Network Devices

Types of Switch
 Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and are responsible
for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.
 Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and can route data
between different network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2 switches and are often used
in larger, more complex networks.
 PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which allows them to supply
power to network devices over the same cable that carries data.
 Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a server rack and are suitable for
use in data centers or other large networks.

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Network Devices

• 5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The
router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets. The
router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.
• 6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks that may work
upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that take data from one system,
interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can
operate at any network layer.

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Network Devices

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