GCHE 601 Research Methodology

by

Dr. Abdullah A. Elamari

Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of

Sirte

Fill 2024
 COURSE OBJECTIVES

 Develop a basic understanding of research and its methodologies

 Identify appropriate research topics
 Select and define appropriate research problem
 Prepare a project proposal
 Organise and conduct research
 Write a research report and thesis

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 Research comes from a prefix and a root word

﴾RE + SEARCH ﴿
that means ﴾To Seek Out Again﴿
In most research is indeed, a matter of seeking out ideas and
materials already found or developed by others. Research is making
discoveries – usually in order to put together in new ways, which is
found. Research is a systematic investigation designed to improve
our knowledge and understanding of a subject.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 Research methodology is a way of explaining how
a researcher intends to carry out their research. It's a logical,
systematic plan to resolve a research problem. A methodology
details a researcher's approach to the research to ensure
reliable, valid results that address their aims and objectives. It
include what data they're going to collect and where from, as
well as how it's being collected and analyzed.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 A research methodology gives research legitimacy and
provides scientifically sound findings. It also provides a detailed
plan that helps to keep researchers on track.
A researcher's methodology allows the
reader to
understand the approach and methods used to reach
conclusions.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

There are four ways to further our knowledge through
research:

1. to confirm the existing knowledge. ‫تأكيد‬

2. to refute the existing knowledge. ‫تفنيد نقد‬

3. to update the existing knowledge. ‫تحديث‬

4. to upgrade the existing knowledge. ‫تطوير‬

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

Depending on the purpose of research, scientific research
projects can be grouped into three types:

Exploration Description Explanation

‫استكشاف‬ ‫وص‬ ‫تفسير‬

‫ف‬

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 Simplify satisfy the researcher’s for
better
to
understanding
 To testthe feasibility of undertaking a more
.
careful study regarding that phenomenon.

 To develop the methods to be employed in a

more useful manner.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 to describe situation and events. (e.g.
Gallup Poll) .
Descriptive research is directed at making careful observations
and detailed documentation of that phenomenon. These
observations must be based on the scientific method (i.e., must
be replicable, precise, etc.)

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

Explain things, findings or answering
to the questions like why,

•what, how etc. in scientific way.

 Exploration is the attempt to develop an initial understanding of
some phenomena.
 Description is the precise measurement and reporting of the

characteristics of some population or phenomena under study

 Explanation is the discovery and reporting of
relationships
• among different aspects of the phenomena under study.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 Research needs to test the validity of hypothesis /ses or theory/ies

 Research needs to discover the gaps of knowledge in a subject

area.

gaps
 Contribute to the advancement of knowledge or bridge
.
knowledge
 Helps in making policy
decisions.
 Help solving problems that affects people as well as organizations.

 Provide a basis for prediction of events and to take

proactive
decisions. Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari
 A Research is an evaluative, analytical and critically
investigative inquiry.
 A Report is a compiled (Collected) information
without evaluating, analyzing and interpreting (Explanation)
it.
Most reports simply record a series of facts or incidences
that have found or happened as they are.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 and

Some writers use the words of Methods and Methodology

interchangeably

 Methodology refers to the overall approach to the research

process– from the theoretical underpinning to the collection
and analysis of data.
 Methods refer only to the various means by which data can be
collected and/or analyzed
 Techniques refer the analytical tools or measures which apply
to analyze data.
Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari
 To explore and analyze more general issues.

 To test hypothesis (ses) or theory (ies).

 To construct or create a new procedure or system.

 To generate new knowledge.

 To explain a new phenomenon.

 A combination of any of the above.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 Clear problem focus.
 Objective and unbiased presentation of research findings.
 Addresses knowledge gaps.
 Methodologically sound appropriate methods used in data
collection and analysis.
 Methodological limitations are identified and an attempt is made
to overcome them.
 Due (suitable) acknowledgement is given to other’s work.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 Well organized and clear presentation of data as well as ideas.
 Clarity are maintained through out the research.
 Offer appropriate explanation of phenomena or issues.
 Validity and reliability of the results are established.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

RESEARCH METHODS OR TECHNIQUES

Research methods or techniques refer to all the methods the

researchers use in performing research operations ( see research
instruments / research tools)

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research can be classified from three perspectives:
 Application of the research study
 Objectives
 Inquiry mode employed

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

If you examine a research from the perspective of its application, there
are two broad categories:

 Pure research
 Applied research

According to Bailey ( 1978:17):

Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that
are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical
application at the present time or in the future. Thus such work often involves the
testing of hypotheses containing very abstract and specialised concepts.

Applied research Most of the research undertaken in the social sciences is

applied, the findings being designed either for use in understanding a
phenomena/issue or to bring a change in a program/situation.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 OBJECTIVES
A research study can be carried out with four objectives:
1. Descriptive
2. Correlational
3. Explanatory
4. Exploratory
Descriptive:
The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent with respect
to the issue/ problem under study. The main characteristic of descriptive research
is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what
has happened or what is happening.
The term Ex post facto ( after the fact ) research for descriptive research is used
mainly in social science and business research
Some examples:
 Attitudes of students towards quality teaching
 Strategies put in place by a company to increase workers’ productivity
Effects of living in a house with domestic violence

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH
Research must address an important and relevant issue.This means that:
-it is undertaken to increase knowledge and have some beneficial implications
-it will also have relevance to the time, place, and population of the study.
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting
information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process
must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be:
 Logical
 Rigorous
 Systematic
 Valid and verifiable
 Empirical
 Critical

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

Good research is logical: this implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning ,and the logical process of induction and deduction is essential in carrying
out research.
Rigorous-you must be scrupulous (careful) in ensuring that the procedures followed
to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the
degree of rigor (strict) varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and
within the social sciences.
Good research is systematic: this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake
an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be
taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others. The systematic
characteristic of research rejects the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at
conclusions.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

Good research is systematic as it follows certain steps. These steps are:
Problem identification
Reviewing the literature
Collecting data
Analysing data
Drawing conclusions and making generalisations

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

THE RESEARCH PROCESS: AN EIGHT – STEP MODEL

A) 5 STEPS IN PLANNING A RESEARCH STUDY

Step 1: Formulating a research problem
Step 2: Conceptualising a research design
Step 3: Constructing an instrument for data collection
Step 4: Selecting a sample
Step 5: Writing a research proposal

B) 3 STEPS IN CONDUCTING A STUDY

Step 6: Collecting data
Step 7: Processing data
Step 8: Writing a research report

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

How to address a Research
Problem

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 What is the research problem?

A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in

knowledge that you will aim to address in your research. You might look for
practical problems aimed at contributing to change, or theoretical problems
aimed at expanding knowledge. Bear in mind that some research will do both
of these things, but usually the research problem focuses on one or the other.
The type of research problem you choose depends on your broad topic of
interest and the type of research you want to do.

Why are research questions important?

“Well-crafted questions guide the systematic

planning of research. Formulating your
questions precisely enables you to design a
study with a good chance of answering them.”

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

After selecting a problem, it should be stated carefully by the researcher to

delimit his task and isolate a specific problem before he can proceed with
active planning of the study. This type of decision is culminated in the
problem statement.
Kerlinger (1964) has identified three criteria of good Problem Statements.
1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more
variables. (eg, age, sex . . . .etc)
2. It should be stated “clearly and unambiguously in question form.
3. It should be amenable to empirical testing.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

Where do research ideas(problems) come from?
It can arise from a range of sources such as:
1.The personal or professional experience
Every day personal or professional experience may lead us to identify a problem for
which we would like a solution. Alternatively, we may encounter a question or
questions that we would like to try and answer.
2.Atheory
Theories may be useful in suggesting interesting questions and generally guiding field
work, but should not restrict us from exploring alternative explanations. The end result
of the research process is knowledge.
3.The media
We are also flooded with information presented by the media, such as television,
which again might give rise to research ideas.
4.Other research studies.
When searching and reading literature it is possible to encounter gaps in information
and knowledge, and problems for which there is currently no solution. These may
provide a good basis for research.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

How to plan to the research problem
1.Put a research schedule
In some cases, you might have to include a detailed timeline to the project,
exactly explain what you will do at each stage and how long it will take. In
addition, check the requirements of your programme or funding resources to
see the required time.
2.Putabudget
If you are applying for research funding, you will probably have to include a
detailed budget that shows how much each part of the project will cost.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

To determine your budget, think about:
a. Materials:
-Do you need access to any tools or technologies?
-Are there training or installation costs?
-Will you need to buy things from the outside, ex:
Import kits, chemicals, reagents, instruments…etc.
b. Seek assistance:
-Do you need to hire research assistants for the project?
-What will they do and how much will you pay them?
-Will you hire devices or work in other labs?
c. Travel costs:
-Do you need to go to specific locations to collect data?
-How will you get there? How long will you spend there? And what will you do
there?
d. Time:
-Do you need to take leave from regular duties such as teaching?
-How much will you need to cover the time spent on the research?

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

 How to write a research proposal
A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how
you will do the research. The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but
most proposals should contain at least these elements:
 Cover page.
 Introduction.
 Literature review.
 Research design
 Reference list.

 There may be some variation in how the sections are named or divided, but the
overall goals are always the same.
 As a student, you might have to write a research proposal to get your thesis or
dissertation plan approved. All research proposals are designed to persuade
someone, such as a funding body, educational institution, or supervisor that your
project is worthwhile.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

Research proposal aims

1.Relevance: Convince the reader that your project is

interesting, original and important.
2.Context: Show that you are familiar with the field, you
understand the current state of research on the topic, and
your ideas have a strong academic basis.
3. Approach: Make a case for your methodology, showing
that you have carefully thought about the data, tools and
procedures you will need to conduct the research.
4. Feasibility: Confirm that the project is possible within the
practical constraints (restrictions or limitations) of the
programme, institution or funding.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

How long is a research proposal?
The length of a research proposal varies dramatically. A proposal for Ph.D.
dissertations and research is often long and detailed. Although you write it before
you begin the research, the proposal’s structure usually looks like a shorter version
of a dissertation, but without the results and discussion sections.

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

Home work

1.Think about a research problem in your discipline and try to apply all the
above notes when you search about it.
2. Prepare yourself for a brief discussion about it.

Have a Good Luck ☺

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

Introduction
&Literature review
 Introduction &Literature review
Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

Introduction
The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch (throw) for
your project, so make sure it briefly explains what you want to
do and why. It should:
1.Introduce the topic.
2.Give back ground and context.
3.Out line your problem statement and research question (s).

Some important questions to guide your introduction:

Who has an interest in the topic (e.g. scientists, practitioners,
policy makers, particular members of society)?

Prof. Abdullah A. Elamari

How much is already known about the problem?
What is missing from current knowledge?
What new insights will your research contribute?
Why is this research worth doing?

If your proposal is very long, you might include

separate sections with more detailed information
on the back ground and context ,problem
statement, aims and objectives, and importance of
the research.
Literature review
A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a
specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge,
allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods and gaps in
the existing research.
Writing a literature review involves finding relevant
publications (such as books and journal articles), critically
analyzing them and explaining what you found.
A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources, it
analyzes, synthesizes and critically evaluates to give a clear
picture of the state of knowledge on your subject.
It’s important to show that you’re familiar with the most
important research on your topic. A strong literature review
convinces the reader that your project has a solid foundation in
existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not
simply repeating what other people have already done or said. In
this section, aim to demonstrate exactly how your project will
contribute to conversations in the field, Ex:

1.Compare and contrast: what are the main theories, methods,

debates and controversies?
2.Be critical: what are the strengths and weaknesses of different
approaches?
3.Show how your research fits in: how will you build on,
challenge, or synthesize the work of others?
Why you write a literature review?
When you write a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, you will have to conduct a
literature review to situate your research with in existing knowledge. Writing the
literature review shows your reader how your work relates to the existing research and
what new in sights it will contribute.
There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research
project:
1.To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic.
2.To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done.
3.To position your self in relation to other researchers and theorists.
4.To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can
address.
5.To develop your theoretical framework and methodology.
6.To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic.
The Research
Hypotheses
What is a hypothesis

 A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific

research.
 A research or scientific hypothesis is a specific, clear, and
testable assumption, or predictive statement about the
possible outcome of a scientific research study (for example, a
dissertation or thesis), based on a particular property of a
population.
 It is an idea or explanation for something that is based on
known facts but has not yet been proved.

For example, if you want to test a relationship between two or

more things, you need to write hypotheses before you start your
experiment or data collection.
 For a hypothesis to be a genuine research hypothesis, this
statement needs to have three attributes: specificity,
testability and falsifiability.
 Specifying the research hypotheses is one of the most
important steps in planning a scientific quantitative
research study.
 A quantitative researcher usually states an expectation
about the results of the study in one or more research
hypotheses before conducting the study, because the
design of the research study and the planned research
design often determined by the stated hypotheses. Thus,
one of the advantages of stating a research hypothesis is
that it requires the researcher to fully think.
 A good research hypothesis needs to be very clear about what’s
being assessed (who and what is involved) and very specific
about the expected outcome.
 A hypothesis must be testable (can be proven true) to qualify as a
scientific hypothesis. If it’s not testable, it’s not a hypothesis.
 Testability means that you must be able to collect observable
data in a scientifically rigorous manner to assess whether it
supports the hypothesis or not. In other words, there needs to be a
way to prove the claim.
 It is not enough for scientific hypothesis to be testable. To be a
useful hypothesis, it also needs to be falsifiable (disprovable). In
other words, there needs to be some identifiable way to test
whether a hypothesis is false. If there’s no way to assess whether
a claim is false, it’s not a hypothesis.
Importance of a Testable Hypothesis

To be considered testable, some essential criteria

must be met in your hypothesis:

 There must be a possibility to prove that the

hypothesis is true.
 There must be a possibility to prove that the
hypothesis is false.
 The results of the hypothesis must be
reproducible.

Without these criteria, the hypothesis and the

results will be vague. As a result, the experiment
will not prove or disprove anything significant.
Variables in hypotheses
Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more
variables. An independent variable is something the researcher
changes or controls. A dependent variable is something the
researcher observes and measures.
Developing a hypothesis
1. Ask a question
Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that
you want to answer. The question should be focused,
specific and researchable within the determinants of your
project.
2. Do some preliminary research
Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is
already known about the topic. Look for theories and
previous studies to help you form assumptions about what
your research will find. At this stage, you might construct
a conceptual framework to identify which variables you
will study and what you think the relationships are
between them.
3. Formulate your hypothesis
Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise
sentence.
4. Refine your hypothesis
There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, the
hypothesis should contain:
 The relevant variables.
 The specific group being studied.
 The predicted outcome of the experiment or
analysis.
 5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple

prediction. The first part of the sentence states
the independent variable and the second part
states the dependent variable.
In academic research, hypotheses are more
commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects,
where you directly state the predicted relationship
between variables.
If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can
state what difference you expect to find between
them.
 6.Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis,

you will also have to write a null hypothesis. The
null hypothesis is the default position that there is
no association between the variables.
How to Formulate an Effective Research
Hypothesis

Hypothesis is not a simple statement. It is an

intricate statement that needs to offer a clear
introduction to a scientific experiment, its intentions,
and the possible outcomes. However, there are some
important things to consider when building a
compelling hypothesis.
1. State the problem that you are trying to solve.
-Make sure that the hypothesis clearly defines the
topic and the focus of the experiment.
2. Try to write the hypothesis as an if-then
statement.
-If a specific action is taken, then a certain
outcome is expected.
3. Define the variables.
-In scientific experiments, a hypothesis proposes
and examines the relationship between an
independent variable and a dependent variable.
The effect on the dependent variable (the idea
being tested) depends on or is determined by what
happens when you change the independent
variable (the factor being changed).
Some important questions to ask:

1. Is the language clear and focused?

2. Does the hypothesis introduce the research
topic?
3. Does the hypothesis include both an independent
and dependent variable? Are they easy to identify?
4. Can the hypothesis be tested through
experimentation?
5. Does the hypothesis explain what you expect to
happen during your experiment?
This is an excellent list to refer to before you begin
an experiment. It can help you identify weaknesses
in your hypothesis and revise it if necessary.
Research
Strategies
What are the Research Strategies?

 The research strategy refers to how you intend to answer the

research questions you set, and how you will implement the
methodology.
 It is an overall plan or explanation to conduct the research
study which has not yet been proved.
 A research strategy guides a researcher in planning,
implementing and monitoring the study.
 The research methods tell the researcher how to collect and
analyse data, e.g. through interviews, questionnaires, or
statistical methods. Thus, are search strategy offers high-
level guidance, while a research method can be seen as a
technique or tool for performing a specific task.
For example, an experiment can be helpful for identifying the
cause of some events, but is probably less suitable for exploring an
unknown topic or measuring attitudes in a large population.

As a number of different research strategies exist, are searcher to

embark on a study needs to determine which one of these to choose.
The choice depends on the goals and characteristics of the study,
and it is possible to identify three main questions for choosing an
appropriate strategy:
1. Is it suitable with respect to the research question?
2.Is it feasible, taking into account the resources of the research
project?
3.Is it ethical, taking into account its possible effects on people,
animals and the environment?
 The researcher needs to have access to data sources, such as
people and documents, which may be difficult to obtain when
people are busy, or documents are confidential.
 The researcher may also need special resources, such as
laboratory equipment or computer software. The need for various
resources is very much dependent upon the choice of research
strategy, and therefore, some strategies may not be feasible in a
certain situation.
 Furthermore, some research strategies, such as action research,
are highly time-consuming, which can make them inappropriate
for small-scale research projects.
 The meaning of the need to do the experiments in an ethically
responsible way is that no one should suffer harm as a
consequence of the research study, neither humans, nor animals,
nor the environment.
The four main types of research strategy are:

1.case study.
2.qualitative interviews.
3.quantitative survey.
4.action-oriented research.
Case Study
This one focuses on an in-depth investigation of a single case or a
small number of cases. In case study research generally, information
is sought from different sources such as the observations, survey,
interviews and analysis of documents. Data can be qualitative,
quantitative or a mix of both. Case study research allows a
complex and multifaceted investigation of the issue or problem.
The interviews allow access to rich information. They
require extensive planning concerning the development of
the structure, decisions about who to interview and how,
whether to conduct individual or group interviews, and
how to record and analyse them.

Interviewees need a wide range of skills, including good

social skills, listening skills and communication skills.
Interviews are also time-consuming to conduct and they
are prone to problems and biases that need to be
minimized during the design stage.
Empirical research strategies

1. Experiments
An experiment is an empirical study that investigates cause and
effect relationships. The purpose of an experiment is to prove
or disprove acausal relationship between a factor and an
observed outcome. Such a relationship can be formulated as a
hypothesis often in the form “Factor X causes outcome Y”. A
hypothesis can be expressed more precisely using the concepts
of dependent variables and independent variables. An
independent variable corresponds to the cause in a hypothesis,
while the dependent variable corresponds to the outcome. A
laboratory experiment reduces complexity by controlling, even
eliminating, factors that can interfere with the experimental
results.
2. Surveys
It means to look upon or oversee something. A survey usually
has a broad coverage and provides a helicopter view of some
area of interest. The breadth of surveys means that they work
best for collecting data on narrow and well-defined topics,
while they are less suitable for studying complex phenomena in
greater depth. May be, the face-to-face survey, in which the
researcher directly interacts with the respondents is the best
method of survey. A main concern of any survey study is that of
sampling. Sampling is about the selection of individuals within
a population, e.g. selecting 500 people to interview from a city
population of 1,000,000. A strength of surveys as research
strategy is that it allows for collecting large amounts of data
inexpensively and over a short time span.
3.CaseStudies
A case study focuses on one instance of a phenomenon to be
investigated, and it offers a rich and deep description, and insight
of that instance. In contrast with the laboratory experiment,
complexity is essential to a successful case study, as it
investigates multiple factors, events and relationships that occur
in areal-world case. A key decision in any case study is the
choice of the instance to be studied. A common criticism of case
studies is that their results may only apply to the instance being
studied. To address such criticism, a case study researcher needs
to clarify the extent to which an instance is representative of a
class of similar instances.
Methods of Data
Collection,
Presentation, Analysis
& Interpretation
Methods of Data Collection

A key activity in any experimental research study is to collect data

about the phenomenon under investigation. The data collected may
be numeric (often called quantitative data) or other kinds of data,
including qualitative data. Regardless of the kind of data, five of
the most widely used data collection methods are:

 Questionnaires.

 Interviews.

 Focus groups.

 Observation studies.

 document studies.
Some of these data collection methods have become closely
associated with certain research strategies, e.g. surveys typically
use questionnaires.

Within a research project, it is common to use only a single data

collection method. However, it can be helpful to employ several
methods in order to improve accuracy and to broaden the
picture.
For example, a questionnaire can be used to collect a large amount
of basic, quantitative information, which can be complemented with
more qualitative information from interviews, thereby providing a
more complete picture. Both of them can be used to support the
laboratory tests, or to give a background about the patients.
The approach of combining research strategies and methods (not
only data collection methods) is called the mixed methods
approach. The mixed methods approach is related to the principle of
triangulation, which is about viewing the same phenomenon from
different perspectives. One way of doing this is to use different
research strategies and methods but also different sources of data or
even different researchers.
1.Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a written document including a list of
questions to be distributed to a number of respondents.
When the respondents answer the questions, they provide the
researcher with data that can be interpreted and analysed. The
questions of a questionnaire need to be carefully chosen and
formulated; they should be:
Brief: The question should preferably not be more than 20 words.

•Relevant: The question should be relevant to the questionnaire and

its purpose.

•Unambiguous: The question should have only one possible

interpretation; ambiguous and unfamiliar words should be avoided.

•Specific: The question should not be vague, e.g. “Do you often read
email on your tablet?”

•Objective: The formulation of the question should not suggest an

answer, e.g. “Do you agree that our country needs a new
government?”
A main advantage of questionnaires, compared to other data
collection methods, is that they are inexpensive.
2.Interviews
An interview is a communication session between a researcher
and a respondent, in which the researcher controls the agenda
by asking questions to the respondent. While questionnaires are
appropriate for collecting simple and straightforward information,
interviews are more effective for gathering complex and
sensitive information. Respondents may be less willing to fully
disclose information to some one who is very different to them, for
example, in terms of age, gender and occupational status, especially
when sensitive issues are discussed. The researcher can guide the
interview so that the respondent provides answers that are as
informative as possible.
The answers provided by a respondent need to be recorded and
transcribed so that the researcher can further interpret and analyse
them.
A main advantage of interviews is that they allow a
researcher to go into depth in order to gather detailed
and complex information. A disadvantage is that
interviews are time-consuming, in particular the
transcription and analysis processes after an interview.
3.FocusGroups
A focus group can be seen as an interview in which a group of
respondents participate and discuss a specific topic. The aim of a
focus group is to understand and interpret the topic from the
perspective of the participants. Focus groups allow for interaction
between the participants, which can enable them to be more creative
and pursue the topic addressed in greater depth than in one-to-one
interviews.
4.Observations
Observation is a data collection method, where a researcher
directly observes phenomena. Observation is often an
alternative to questionnaires or interviews and offers the
advantage that the researcher can observe what people
actually do, not what they say or think. Observation can be
used within any research strategy, both in the field and in the
laboratory as part of an experiment.
A disadvantage of systematic observation is that the
data collected may be superficial, issue is that there are
ethical problems when researchers act under cover, as
they cannot obtain informed consent from the research
subjects
5.Documents
Documents constitute an alternative source of data, in
addition to those of questionnaires, interviews and
observations. Documents often contain textual data,
but they can also consist of photographs, images,
audio or video files, etc.
Some common types of documents are the following:

•Government Publications: These include official statistics,

official reports and public records.
• Organizational Records: These include annual reports.
• Academic Publications: These include publications in
journals, conferences and workshops as well as doctoral
dissertations.
• Personal Communications.
A main issue when using documents for data collection is to
assess their credibility, i.e. to determine if they are authentic,
correct and free from bias and errors.
Government publications are generally seen as trust worthy, as
they have been produced by the state, often by experts.
Academic publications in well-established journals and
conferences are also generally viewed as credible, as they have
been carefully peer reviewed.

Using documents as a data source means that a great

deal of data can be collected in a shorter period of time
and more inexpensively than what would be the case
with questionnaires or interviews.
A disadvantage of documents is that it is often difficult to
judge their credibility. An example in point is Wikipedia,
where anyone can edit its pages, which could result in
low credibility.
Data Analysis
Data analysis derives valuable information from data in order
to describe or explain some phenomenon under investigation.
Raw data do not speak for themselves; they need to be
prepared, interpreted, analysed and presented before any
conclusions can be drawn from them. Thus, are searcher needs
to transform large volumes of data into manageable and
meaningful pieces of information.
Descriptive Statistics
A basic form of descriptive statistics is to display parts of a
data sample through tables or charts. Tables make it
possible to display highly detailed data, while charts can be
made more visually attractive. Some common types of charts
are: bar charts, which are often used to display frequencies;
pie charts, which are useful for showing proportions; and line
graphs, which can show trends in data.
Data samples can also be described through
various aggregate measures:
•Mean: For a data sample, the mean (or
average) is the sum of the values divided by the
number of values. For example, the mean of
{2,4,8,15,16,16,100} is 23.
As can be seen from this example, the mean can
be heavily influenced by outlier values.
•Median: The median is the value that
separates the higher half of a data sample from
the lower half. For the example above, the
median is 15. The median is influenced less by
outlier values than the mean.
•Mode: The mode is the value that appears most
often in a data sample. For the example above, the
mode is 16.
•Range: The range of a data sample is the
difference between its highest and lowest
value. For the example above, the range is 98.
As for the mean, the range is very sensitive to
outlier values.
• Standard Deviation: The standard deviation of a data
sample specifies the average amount of variability.

Tables, charts and aggregate measures are all valuable for

describing a data sample, and they are typically used in
combination.
Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics aims to reach conclusions that
extend beyond a single data sample, e.g. whether
there is a relationship between two variables or
whether a difference exists between two
populations. Thus, inferential statistics is used for
making inferences from collected data to more
general conditions.
REFERENCES
 REFERENCES

Reference citations are needed for any statement in your

proposal which is not of common knowledge and that requires
information on the source. Focus on the few most relevant and
most recent references, preferably those of international research
journals.
 Types of References

 Journal reference
 Book reference
 Internet reference
 References Style

There are many standard style used for referencing, we can

use any one of them.

 Harvard style of referencing.

 American Psychological Association style
 (APA) Vancouver style
 Modern language association(MLA)
 The Chicago manual of style
 Royal society of chemistry style