Valid and Invalid
Arguments
Arguments
An argument is a sequence of statements.
All statements are the premises.
The last statement is the conclusion.
In mathematics and logic an argument is not a dispute. It is a sequence of
statements ending in a conclusion. In this lecture we study how to determine
whether an argument is valid or not.
Example
If Socrates is a man, then Socrates is mortal.
Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is
mortal.
Example
If Socrates is a man, then Socrates is mortal.
(premises)
Socrates is a man. (premises)
∴ Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)
Example
If Socrates is a man, then Socrates is mortal.
(premises)
Socrates is a man. (premises)
∴ Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)
Abstract form:
If p then q
p
∴q
Validity of an Argument
An argument is valid if the conclusion is
true whenever all the premises are true.
Otherwise, the argument form is invalid.
An invalid argument form is called a
fallacy.
Example: A valid argument
If it is raining, then I am carrying my
umbrella. (premise)
It is raining. (premise)
Therefore, I am carrying my umbrella.
(conclusion)
Example: A valid argument
If it is raining, then I am carrying my
umbrella. (premise)
It is raining. (premise)
Therefore, I am carrying my umbrella.
(conclusion)
Validity of Argument
Form
Argument form is valid means that
if the premises are true,
then the conclusion is also true.
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Checking the validity
of an argument form
1) Construct truth table for the premises and
the conclusion;
2) A row of the truth table in which all the
premises are true is called a critical row.
If the conclusion in every critical row is true,
then the argument form is valid.
If there is a critical row in which all the
premises are true and the conclusion is
false, then the argument is invalid.
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Example of a valid argument
p and q;
if p then q;
conclusion
q. premises
p q p and q if p then q q
T T T T T
Critical row
T F F
F T F
F F F
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Therefore symbol
Example of invalid
argument
p or q;
if p then q;
p.
premise premise conclusion
p q p or q if p then q p
Critical row
T T T T T
T F T F
Critical row F T T T F
F F F
Exercise
Use truth tables to determine whether the
argument forms are valid. Indicate which
columns represent the premises and
which represent the conclusion.
1. p →q ∨ ∼r
q→p∧r
∴ p →r
Exercise (cont.)
2. p →q
q→p
∴p∨q
3. p →q
∼q ∨ r
∴r
p q r ~r qv~r p∧r p →q ∨ ∼r q→p∧r p →r
T T T F T T T T T CR
T T F T T F T F F
T F T F F T F T T
T F F T T F T T F CR
F T T F T F T F T
F T F T T F T F T
F F T F F F T T T CR
F F F T T F T T T CR
p q r p →q q→p p∨q
T T T T T T CR
T T F T T T CR
T F T F T T
T F F F T T
F T T T F T
F T F T F T
F F T T T F CR
F F F T T F CR
p q r ~q p →q ∼q ∨ r
T T T F T T CR
T T F F T F
T F T T F T
T F F T F T
F T T F T T CR
F T F F T F
F F T T T T CR
F F F T T T CR
1. Modus Ponens
Modus ponens is the argument form
pq
p
q
Example of Modus Ponens
Ifyour king is in checkmate, then you have
lost the game.
Your king is in checkmate.
Therefore, you have lost the game.
If
New York is a big city, then New York
has tall buildings.
New York is a big city
Therefore, New York has tall buildings.
2. Modus Tollens
Modus tollens is the argument form
pq
q
p
Examples of Modus Tollens
If it is raining, then I am carrying my
umbrella.
I am not carrying my umbrella.
Therefore, it is not raining.
If the match is lit, then there is oxygen in
the room.
There is no oxygen in the room .
Therefore, the match is not lit.
3. Transitivity
p q
q r
p r
If (a,b) is in the set
and (b, d) is in the set
(a,d) must be in the set.
Example of Transitivity
If you invest in the stock market, then you will get
rich.
If you get rich, then you will be happy.
Therefore, If you invest in the stock market, then
you will be happy.
Argument form:
p q
q r
p r
Example of Transitivity
If I go to the movies, I won’t finish my homework.
If I don’t finish my homework, I won’t do well on
the exam tomorrow.
Therefore, If I go to the movies, I won’t do well on
the exam tomorrow.
Argument form: p q
q r
p r
Example: Invalid Argument
IfI eat my vegetables, I’ll be big and
strong.
I’m big and strong.
Therefore, I ate my vegetables.
if p then q
q
p
Example: invalid argument
If cats can fly, then I am carrying an
umbrella.
Cats cannot fly.
Therefore, I am not carrying an umbrella.
Example:
Use symbols to write the logical form of the following argument, and then use a
truth table to test the argument for validity.
If Tom is not on team A, then Huda is on team B. If Huda is not on
team B, then Tom is on team A.
∴ Tom is not on team A or Huda is not on team B.
p: Tom is on team A, q: Huda is on team B
~p -> q (premise 1)
~q -> p (premise 2)
∴ ~p V ~q
