MOLECULAR FORMULAE

ELEMENT SYMBOLS
Each element is represented by its own unique symbol as seen on the
Periodic Table
E.g. H is hydrogen
Where a symbol contains two letters, the first one is always in capital
letters and the other is small
E.g. sodium is Na, not NA
Atoms combine together in fixed ratios that will give them full outer
shells of electrons
• The chemical formula tells you the ratio of atoms
• E.g. H2O is a compound containing 2 hydrogen atoms which combine
with 1 oxygen atom
• The chemical formula can be deduced from the relative number of atoms
present
• E.g. If a molecule contains 3 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of nitrogen
then the formula would be NH3
• Diagrams or models can also be used to represent the chemical formula
 CONTINUED
• Chemical formulae
• The structural formula tells you the way in which the atoms in a particular
molecule are bonded
• This can be done by either a diagram (displayed formula) or written
(simplified structural formula)
• The molecular formula tells you the actual number of atoms of each
element in one molecule of the compound or element
• E.g. H2 has 2 hydrogen atoms, HCl has 1 hydrogen atom and 1 chlorine
atom
• Example: Butane
• Structural formula (displayed)
CONTINUED
 CONTINUED
• Deducing formulae by Combining power(valency)

• The concept of valency is used to deduce the formulae of compounds

(either molecular compounds or ionic compounds)
• Valency or combining power tells you how many bonds an atom can make
with another atom or how many electrons its atoms lose, gain or share, to
form a compound
• E.g. carbon is in Group IV so a single carbon atom can make 4 single
bonds or 2 double bonds
• The following valencies apply to elements in each group:
CONTINUED
• Empirical Formulae
• EXTENDED
• The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and type of
each atom in a molecule
• E.g. the molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H4O2
• The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of
each element present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
• E.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH 2O
• Organic molecules, such as ethanoic acid, often have different empirical
and molecular formulae
• The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula
DEDUCING FORMULAE OF IONIC
COMPOUNDS
• EXTENDED
• The formulae of these compounds can be calculated if you know the charge on the ions
• The Periodic Table can help work out the charge on many elements:
• Group I elements form ions with a 1+ charge
• Group II elements form ions with a 2+ charge
• Group III elements form ions with a 3+ charge
• Group V elements form ions with a 3- charge
• Group VI elements form ions with a 2- charge
• Group VII elements form ions with a 1- charge
• Below are some other common ions and their charges
• Note that a Roman numeral next to the element tells you the charge on the ion, e.g. copper(II) ions
have a charge 2+
• There are several common compound ions included in the table
• Some chemists call these polyatomic ions
COMMON IONS & THEIR CHARGES TABLE
 CONTINUED
• he overall sum of the charges of an ionic compound should be 0
• You therefore need to work out the ratio of the ions to ensure this is the case
• When you write the formula of a compound ion it is necessary to use brackets around the
compound ion where more than one of that ion is needed in the formula
• For example copper(II) hydroxide is Cu(OH)2
• Worked example
• What is the formula of?

• sodium bromide
• aluminium fluoride
• aluminium oxide
• magnesium nitrate
• ammonium sulfate
 3.1.3 WRITING EQUATIONS
• Word equations
• These show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their full
chemical names
• The arrow (which is spoken as “goes to” or “produces”) implies the conversion
of reactants into products
• Reaction conditions or the name of a catalyst can be written above the arrow
• An example of a word equation for neutralisation is:
• sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water

• The reactants are sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid

• The products are sodium chloride and water
• Names of compounds
• For compounds consisting of 2 atoms:
• If one is a metal and the other a non-metal, then the name of the metal
atom comes first and the ending of the second atom is replaced by
adding -ide
• E.g. NaCl which contains sodium and chlorine thus becomes sodium
chloride
• If both atoms are non-metals and one of those is hydrogen, then
hydrogen comes first
• E.g. Hydrogen and chlorine combined is called hydrogen chloride
 CONTINUED
• For other combinations of non-metals as a general rule, the element that
has a lower group number comes first in the name
• E.g. carbon and oxygen combine to form CO2 which is carbon dioxide
since carbon is in Group 4 and oxygen in Group 6
• For compounds that contain certain groups of atoms:
• There are common groups of atoms which occur regularly in chemistry
• Examples include the carbonate ion (CO32-), sulfate ion (SO42-),
hydroxide ion (OH-) and the nitrate ion (NO3-)
 CONTINUED
• When these ions form a compound with a metal atom, the name of the metal comes
first
• E.g. KOH is potassium hydroxide, CaCO3 is calcium carbonate
• Writing and balancing chemical equations
• Chemical equations use the chemical symbols of each reactant and product
• When balancing equations, there needs to be the same number of atoms of each
element on either side of the equation
• The following non-metals must be written as diatomic molecules (i.e. molecules that
contain two atoms): H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2
• Work across the equation from left to right, checking one element after another
• If there is a group of atoms, for example a nitrate group (NO3-) that has not changed
from one side to the other, then count the whole group as one entity rather than
counting the individual atoms.
 CONTINUED
• xamples of chemical equations:
• Acid-base neutralisation reaction:
• NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) ⟶ NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
• Redox reaction:
• 2Fe2O3 (s) + 3C (s) ⟶ 4Fe (s) + 3CO2 (g)
• In each equation there are equal numbers of each atom on either side of the
reaction arrow so the equations are balanced
• The best approach is to practice lot of examples of balancing equations
• By trial and error change the coefficients (multipliers) in front of the formulae,
one by one checking the result on the other side
• Balance elements that appear on their own, last in the process
 CONTINUED
• Writed a Balanced symbol equation for the following equation:

• magnesium oxide + nitric acid ⟶ magnesium nitrate + water

CONTINUED
 STATE SYMBOLS
• State symbols
• State symbols are written after each formula in chemical equations to show which
physical state each substance is in
• Brackets are used and they are not usually subscripted although you may come
across them written in this way
• Aqueous should remind you of the word 'aqua' and means the substance is
dissolved in water
• In other words it is a solution
• Using state symbols table, IGCSE & GCSE Chemistry revision notes

• The four state symbols show the physical state of substances at normal
conditions
 CONTINUED
• Symbol equations should be included when writing chemical equations.
• An example of a reaction with state symbols is the reaction of copper carbonate with hydrochloric acid:
• CuCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) ⟶ CuCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

• Sometimes it can be hard to know what the correct state symbol is and we have to look for clues in the identity of
substances in a reaction
• Generally, unless they are in a solution:
• Metal compounds will always be solid, although there are a few exceptions
• Ionic compounds will usually be solids
• Non-metal compounds could be solids, liquids or gases, so it depends on chemical structure
• Precipitates formed in solution count as solids
• In the worked examples above the final equations with the state symbols would be
• 2Al (s) + 3CuO (s) ⟶ Al2O3 (s) + 3Cu (s)
• MgO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) ⟶ Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)
• Exam Tip
• Be careful when writing the state symbol of solutions of liquids. For
example, ethanol, or common alcohol, is a liquid at room temperature, so if
it is pure alcohol then you would be using (l) as the state symbol; most of
the time alcohol is used as a solution in water so (aq) is symbol to use.

• Deducing Symbol Equations

• EXTENDED
• For some reactions, you will not be given the unbalanced equation but you
will be expected to use your knowledge learnt throughout the course to
know or deduce the formula of compounds and then balance the equations
 IONIC EQUATIONS
• Balancing Ionic Equations
• In aqueous solutions ionic compounds dissociate into their ions, meaning they separate into the
component ions that formed them
• E.g. hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide dissociate as follows:
• HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)

• KOH (aq) → K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

• It is important that you can recognise common ionic compounds and their constituent ions
• These include:
• Acids such as HCl and H2SO4
• Group I and Group II hydroxides e.g. sodium hydroxide
• Soluble salts e.g. potassium sulfate, sodium chloride
• Follow the example below to write ionic equations
 CONTINUED
• Write the ionic equation for the reaction of aqueous chlorine and aqueous potassium iodide.

• Answer:

• Step 1: Write out the full balanced equation:

• 2KI (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + I2 (aq)

• Step 2: Identify the ionic substances and write down the ions separately

• 2K+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2K+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) + I2 (aq)

• Step 3: Rewrite the equation eliminating the ions which appear on both sides of the equation (spectator ions ) which in
this case are the K+ ions:

• 2I- (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2Cl- (aq) + I2 (aq)

 RELATIVE MASSES
• Relative Masses
• Relative Atomic Mass
• The symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar
• The relative atomic mass for each element can be found in the Periodic Table along with the
atomic number
• The relative atomic mass is shown underneath the atomic symbol and is larger than the atomic
number (except for hydrogen where they are the same)
• Atoms are too small to accurately weigh but scientists needed a way to compare the masses of
atoms
• The carbon-12 is used as the standard atom and has a fixed mass of 12 units
• It is against this atom which the masses of all other atoms are compared
• Relative atomic mass (Ar) can therefore be defined as:
• The average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of
12C
 AR
• The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12
• The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24 which means that magnesium is twice
as heavy as carbon
• The relative atomic mass of hydrogen is 1 which means it has one twelfth the mass
of one carbon-12 atom
• Relative molecular (formula) mass
• The symbol for the relative molecular mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of
the molecule
• To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of
all the atoms present in the formula
• Relative formula mass is used when referring to the total mass of an ionic compound
• Relative Formula Mass Calculations Table
MR CALCULATIONS
 REACTING MASSES
• Reacting masses
• The Law of Conservation of mass tells us that mass cannot be created or destroyed
• In a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants equals the total mass of the products
• We can use this, along with relative atomic/formula masses to perform calculations to identify the quantities of
reactants or products involved in a chemical reaction
• Example:
• 2Ca + O2 → 2CaO

• Relative atomic masses: Ca = 40; O = 16

• Using the balanced symbol equation shows that 2 x 40 = 80 units of mass of calcium react with 2 x 16 = 32 units of
mass of oxygen (O2 molecule, 16 + 16 = 32) to form 2 x (40 + 16) = 112 units of mass of CaO:
• 2Ca + O2 → 2CaO

• 80 + 32 = 112

• The ratio of the mass of calcium and oxygen reacting will always be the same, regardless of the units
• E.g. 80 g of calcium will react with 32 g of oxygen to form 112 g of calcium
oxide
• Or, 40 tonnes of calcium will react in excess oxygen to form 56 tonnes of
calcium oxide
• Worked example
• Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide produced when 32 g of methane, CH4,
reacts completely in excess oxygen:

• CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

• Relative atomic masses, Ar: H = 1; C = 12; O = 16

 CONTINUED
• Answer

• In terms of relative mass the equation is:

• CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

• 12 + (4 x 1) + 2 x (2 x 16) → 12 + (2 x 16) + 2 x (2 x 1 + 16)

• 16 + 64 → 44 + 36

• So 16 g of methane would react in excess oxygen to form 44 g of carbon dioxide

• Therefore, 32 g of methane would produce 44 x 2 = 88 g of carbon dioxide

• The Mole & the Avogadro Constant
• EXTENDED

• The Mole & Avogadro's Constant

• Chemical amounts are measured in moles
• The mole, symbol mol, is the SI unit of amount of substance
• One mole of a substance contains the same number of the stated particles, atoms, molecules, or ions
as one mole of any other substance
• One mole contains 6.02 x 10^23 particles (e.g. atoms, ions, molecules); this number is known as the
Avogadro Constant
• For example:
• One mole of sodium (Na) contains 6.02 x 10^23 atoms of sodium
• One mole of hydrogen (H2) contains 6.02 x 10^23 molecules of hydrogen
• One mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) contains 6.02 x 10^23 formula units of sodium chloride
 THE MOLE

• A mole is a number. The word “mole” stands for a particular number. This
is known as the Avogadro Constant. Just as the word”dozen” represents
the number “12”, the mole represents the number represented by
Avogadro’s constant.
• The Avogadro constant is a number. The Avogadro constant is the number
of atoms, molecules or ions in a mole of the given substance. We state it
as 6.02 x 1023 atoms per mole.
• Avogadro’s number and moles. One mole of any substance contains 6.02
x 10^23 particles. To determine the number of moles in a given number
of particles, we can use the equation: –
Number of moles(n) = (given number of particles(N)/ 6.02 x 10^23)
• Moles apply to all particles – we can use moles to measure out atoms,
molecules, ions, electrons, formulae and equations
• The mass of 1 mole of a substance is known as the molar mass
• For an element, it is the same as the relative atomic mass written in
grams
• For a compound it is the same as the relative formula mass or relative
molecular mass in grams
• From the molar gas volume the following formula triangle can be derived:
• The Mole & Volume of Gas
• EXTENDED
• Avogadro’s Law states that at the same conditions of temperature and
pressure, equal amounts of gases occupy the same volume of space
• At room temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by one mole of
any gas was found to be 24 dm3 or 24,000 cm3
• This is known as the molar gas volume at RTP
• RTP stands for “room temperature and pressure” and the conditions are
20 ºC and 1 atmosphere (atm)
• To find the volume of a gas

• Volume = Moles x Molar Volume

• Examples of Converting Moles into Volumes Table

• Linking Moles, Mass & Mr
• Calculating Moles
• EXTENDED
• Although elements and chemicals react with each other in molar ratios, in the laboratory we use
digital balances and grams to measure quantities of chemicals as it is impractical to try and
measure out moles
• Therefore we have to be able to convert between moles and grams
• We can use the following formula to convert between moles, mass in grams and the molar mass
• The mass of 1 mole of a substance is known as the molar mass
• For an element, it is the same as the relative atomic mass written in grams
• For a compound it is the same as the relative formula mass or relative molecular

• mass in grams
 REACTING MASSES

• Chemical equations can be used to calculate the moles or masses of

reactants and products
• To do this, information given in the question is used to find the amount in
moles of the substances being considered
• Then, the ratio between the substances is identified using the balanced
chemical equation
• Once the moles have been determined they can then be converted into
grams using the relative atomic or relative formula masses
 REACTIN MASSES USING MOLE
RATIOS
• Example 1
• Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that can be made by completely
burning 6.0 g of magnesium in oxygen in the following reaction:
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) ⟶ 2 MgO (s)
Relative formula masses (Mr): Mg = 24; MgO = 40
Example 2
Calculate the mass of aluminium, in tonnes, that can be produced from 51
tonnes of aluminium oxide. The equation for the reaction is:
2Al2O3 ⟶ 4Al + 3O2
Relative formula masses (Mr): Al = 27; Al2O3 = 102
EXAMPLE 1 SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 2 SOLUTION
 EXAM TIP

•Remember molar ratio

of a balanced equation
gives you the ratio of
the amounts of each
substance in the
 LIMITING REACTANTS

• A chemical reaction stops when one of the reactants is used up

• The reactant that is used up first is the limiting reactant, as it limits the
duration and hence the amount of product that a reaction can produce
• The amount of product is therefore directly proportional to the amount of the
limiting reactant added at the beginning of a reaction
• The limiting reactant is the reactant which is not present in excess in a
reaction
• In order to determine which reactant is the limiting reactant in a reaction, we
have to consider the ratios of each reactant in the balanced equation
• When performing reacting mass calculations, the limiting reactant is always
the number that should be used as it indicates the maximum possible
amount of product
 THE STEPS ARE:

• Write the balanced equation for the

reaction
• Calculate the moles of each reactant
• Compare the moles & deduce the
limiting reactant
 EXAMPLE 1

• 9.2 g of sodium is reacted with 8.0 g of

sulfur to produce sodium sulfide,
Na2S.Which reactant is in excess and
which is the limiting reactant?
Relative atomic masses (Ar):
Na = 23; S = 32
 ANSWER
• Step 1: Write the balanced equation and determine the molar ratio

• 2Na + S → Na2S so the molar ratio of Na : S is 2 : 1

• Step 2: Calculate the moles of each reactant

• Moles = Mass ÷ Molar Mass

• Moles Na = 9.2 ÷ 23 = 0.40

• Moles S = 8.0 ÷ 32 = 0.25

• Step 3: Compare the moles

• To react completely 0.40 moles of Na requires 0.20 moles of S and since there are 0.25 moles of S, then S is in excess
• Na is therefore the limiting reactant
 SOLUTION CONT’D
• Step 3: Compare the moles

• To react completely 0.40 moles of Na requires 0.20 moles of S and since

there are 0.25 moles of S, then S is in excess
• Na is therefore the limiting reactant
 3.2.4 CALCULATING
CONCENTRATION
• solid substance that dissolves in a liquid is called a solute, the liquid is
called a solvent and the two when mixed together form a solution
• Most chemical reactions occur between solutes which are dissolved in
solvents, such as water or an organic solvent
• Concentration simply refers to the amount of solute there is in a specific
volume of the solvent
• The greater the amount of solute in a given volume, the greater the
concentration
• The amount of solute can be expressed in grams or moles
• Typically, concentration is expressed in terms of the amount of substance
per dm3, therefore the units of concentration are either: g/dm3 or
mol/dm3
 CONCENTRATION CONT’D
• Calculating Concentration
• EXTENDED
• Concentration refers to the amount of solute there is in a specific volume
of the solvent
• A general formula to calculate the concentration in g/dm3 is:
• concentration space left parenthesis straight g divided by dm cubed right
parenthesis space equals space fraction numerator mass space of space
solute space left parenthesis straight g right parenthesis over
denominator volume space of space solution space left parenthesis dm
cubed right parenthesis end fraction
 CONCENTRATION CONT’D

• Concentration can be measured in grams per cubic decimetre

• 1 decimetre cubed (dm3) = 1000 cm3
• 1 decimetre cubed (dm3) is the same as 1 litre
• You may be given data in a question which needs to be converted from
cm3 to dm3 or the other way around
• To go from cm3 to dm3 :
• Divide by 1000
• To go from dm3 to cm3 :
• Multiply by 1000
 WORKED EXAMPLE

A student dissolved 10 g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in 2 dm3 of distilled

water. Calculate the concentration of the solution in g/dm3.
Solution
 CALCULATING CONCENTRATION
USING MOLES
• It is more useful to a chemist to express concentration in terms of moles
per unit volume rather than mass per unit volume
• Concentration can therefore be expressed in moles per decimetre cubed
and calculated using the following equation:

• We can modify the concentration formula to include

• moles
• The units in the answer can be written as mol/dm3 (this can also be
written as mol dm-3)
CONCENTRATION CONT’D
SOLUTION
 CONCERNTRATION CONT’D
• Calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in
mol/dm3, when 80 g is dissolved in 500 cm3 of water.Relative atomic
masses, Ar: Na= 23; H= 1; O= 16
 VOLUMETRIC CALCULATIONS
CONTINUED
• 25.0 cm3 of 0.050 mol/dm3 sodium carbonate was completely
neutralised by 20.00 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid. Calculate the
concentration in mol/dm3 of the hydrochloric acid.
 EXAM TIP
Remember to always
convert the units from
cm3 to dm3 by dividing
by 1000.
 TITRATION CALCULATIONS
• Titrations are a method of analysing the concentration of solutions
• Acid-base titrations are one of the most important kinds of titrations
• They can determine exactly how much alkali is needed to neutralise a
quantity of acid – and vice versa
• You may be asked to calculate the moles present in a given amount, the
concentration or volume required to neutralise an acid or a base
• Once a titration is completed and the average titre has been calculated,
you can now proceed to calculate the
• unknown variable using the formula triangle as shown below
 EXAMPLE

A solution of 25.0 cm3 of

hydrochloric acid was titrated
against a solution of 0.100
mol/dm3 NaOH and 12.1 cm3
were required for complete
reaction. Determine the
concentration of the acid
 ANSWER:

• Step 1: Write the equation for the reaction:

• HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

• Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of the NaOH

• Moles = (volume ÷ 1000) x concentration

• Moles of NaOH = 0.012 dm3 x 0.100 mol/dm3 = 1.21 x 10-3 mol

• Step 3: Deduce the number of moles of the acid

• Since the acid reacts in a 1:1 ratio with the alkali, the number of moles of HCl is
also 1.21 x 10-3 mol

• This is present in 25.0 cm3 of the solution (25.0 cm3 = 0.025 dm3)

• Step 4: Find the concentration of the acid

• Concentration = moles ÷ volume (dm3)

• Concentration of HCl =1.21 x 10-3 mol ÷ 0.025 dm3
• = 0.0484 mol/dm3
 EMPIRICAL FORMULA
• Calculating Empirical Formula
• The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of
each element present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
• E.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O
• Organic molecules often have different empirical and molecular formulae
• The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formul
EMPERICA L FORMULA
CALCULATIONS
 EXAM TIP
The molar ratio must be a whole
number. If you don't get a whole
number when calculating the ratio of
atoms in an empirical formula, such
as 1.5, multiply that and the other
ratios to achieve whole numbers .
 CALCULATING MOLECULAR
FORMULA
• Molecular formula gives the actual numbers of atoms of each element present in the
formula of the compound
• To calculate the molecular formula:
• Step 1: Find the relative formula mass of the empirical formula
• Step 2: Use the following equation:
• fraction numerator relative space formula space mass space of space molecular space
formula over denominator relative space formula space mass space of space empirical
space formula end fraction

• Step 3: Multiply the number of each element present in the empirical formula by the
number from step 2 to find the molecular formula

• Table showing the Relationship between Empirical and Molecular Formula

• Worked example
• The empirical formula of X is C4H10S1The relative formula mass (Mr ) of
X is 180.What is the molecular formula of X?
(Relative atomic mass, Ar: Carbon : 12 Hydrogen : 1 Sulfur : 32 )
ANSWER
 DEDUCING FORMULAE OF HYDRATED
SALTS

• The formula of hydrated salts can be determined experimentally by

weighing a sample of the hydrated salt, heating it until the water of
crystallisation has been driven off, then reweighing the now anhydrous
salt
• From the results, you can determine the mass of anhydrous salt and the
mass of the water of crystallisation
• Applying a similar approach to deducing empirical formulae, the formula
of the hydrated salt can be calculated
• Worked example
• 11.25 g of hydrated copper sulfate, CuSO4.xH2O, is heated until it loses
all of its water of crystallisation. It is reweighed and its mass is 7.19 g.
What is the formula of the hydrated copper(II) sulfate
 PRCENTAGE YIELD
• Calculating Percentage Yield, Percentage by Mass & Percentage Purity
• EXTENDED
• Percentage Yield
• Yield is the term used to describe the amount of product you get from a
reaction
• In practice, you never get 100% yield in a chemical process for several
reasons
• These include:
• Some reactants may be left behind in the equipment
• The reaction may be reversible and in these reactions a high yield is never
possible as the products are continually turning back into the reactants
• Some products may also be lost during separation and purification stages
such as filtration or distillation
• There may be side reactions occurring where a substance reacts with a gas
in the air or an impurity in one of the reactants
• Products can also be lost during transfer from one container to another
• ctual & Theoretical Yield
• The actual yield is the recorded amount of product obtained
• The theoretical yield is the amount of product that would be obtained under
perfect practical and chemical conditions
• It is calculated from the balanced equation and the reacting masses
• The percentage yield compares the actual yield to the theoretical yield
 PERCENTAGE YIELD CONTINUED
• For economic reasons, the objective of every chemical producing company
is to have as high a percentage yield as possible to increase profits and
reduce costs and waste
• To calculate percentage yield the following equation is used:
• percentage space yield space equals space fraction numerator actual
space yield over denominator theoretical space yield end fraction space
cross times space 100
• Exam Tip
• Percentage yield cannot be greater than 100%, if you calculate a
percentage higher than this, you have made an error! The most common
error is to divide the theoretical yield by the actual yield so you may just
need to swap the number around in your calculation.
 EXAMPLE
• Worked example
• Copper(II) sulfate may be prepared by the reaction of dilute sulfuric acid on copper(II) oxide.

• A student prepared 1.6 g of dry copper(II) sulfate crystals.

• Calculate the percentage yield if the theoretical yield is 2.0 g.

• Answer

• Actual yield of copper(II) sulfate = 1.6 g

• Percentage yield of copper(II) sulfate = (1.6 / 2.0) x 100
• Percentage yield = 80%
• Calculating percentage mass
• You may be asked to find the percentage by mass of an element within a
compound
• This can be found by calculating the relative formula mass of the
compound and then using the following equation:
• Worked example
• Calculate the percentage by mass of iron in iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.

• Relative atomic masses, Ar: Fe = 56 O = 16

• Answer:

• Step 1: Calculate the relative formula mass of the compound

• (2 × 56) + (3 × 16) = 160

• Step 2: Work out the total Ar of the element you have been asked about
in the question, in this case, iron

• 2 × 56 = 112

• Step 3: Divide the total Ar of the element by the Mr of the compound,

then multiply by 100.

• (112 ÷ 160) × 100 = 70%

• Percentage Purity
• A pure substane has nothing else mixed with it
• Often, the product you are trying to obtain may become contaminated
with unwanted substances such as unreacted reactants, catalysts and
other impurities
• To calculate the percentage purity the following equation is used:
• Worked example
• A sample of lead(II) bromide was made. It weighed 15 g.

• The sample was found to be impure and only contained 13.5 g of lead(II) bromide.

• Calculate the percentage purity of the lead(II) bromide.

• Answer:

• The total mass of the substance is 15 g

• The mass of the pure substance is 13.5 g
• To calculate the percentage purity: (13.5 / 15 ) x 100
• Percentage purity= 90 %