DATA

PROCESSING
AND ANALYSIS
 CONTENTS
 Data Processing

 Scaling And Measurement

Data Analysis

 Hypothesis

 Hypothesis Testing
Data Processing
Editing
Coding
Classification
Tabulation
GraphicalRepresentation
Data Cleaning
Data Adjusting
Editing

FieldEditing
Central Editing
 DATA MEASUREWMENT

As we discussed earlier, the data consists of

1. quantitative variables, like price, income,

sales etc., and

2. qualitative variables like knowledge,

performance , character, Attitude, feelings,
Opinions etc.

The qualitative information must be converted

into numerical form for further analysis.

This is possible through measurement and

 Measuring so many things in day to day life (Ex:
Weight, height, how much love the song or movie
(by
rating)., etc.

Properties like weight, height measured by standard

unit of measurement. (so confident about accuracy
of the result of measurement)

Properties like how much love the music or some

movies, intelligence, self confidence (No standard
scale, less confident about accuracy of result of
measurement)
 So We can’t measure everything in same
scale.
 ISSUES IN ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT

When a researcher is interested in measuring the

attitudes, feelings or opinions of respondents
he/she should be clear about the following:

a) What is to be measured?

b) Who is to be measured?

c) The choices available in data collection

techniques
EVELS OF MEASUREMENT SCALE
The level of measurement refers to the
relationship among the values that are assigned
to the attributes, feelings or opinions for a
variable.

Typically, there are four levels of measurement

scales or methods of assigning numbers:
(a) Nominal scale,
(b) Ordinal scale,
(c) Interval scale, and
(d) Ratio scale.
 Nominal Scale is the crudest among all
measurement scales but it is also the simplest
scale. In this scale the different scores on a
measurement simply indicate different categories.
The nominal scale does not express any values or
relationships between variables.
The nominal scale is often referred to as a
categorical scale.
The assigned numbers have no arithmetic
properties and act only as labels. The only
statistical operation that can be performed on
nominal scales is a frequency count. We cannot
determine an average except mode.
For example: labeling men as ‘1’ and women as ‘2’
which is the most common way of labeling gender
for data recording purpose does not mean women
are ‘twice something or other’ than men. Nor it
 Ordinal Scale involves the ranking of
items along the continuum of the characteristic
being scaled. In this scale, the items are classified
according to whether they have more or less of a
characteristic.
The main characteristic of the ordinal scale is that
the categories have a logical or ordered
relationship. This type of scale permits the
measurement of degrees of difference, (i.e.
‘more’ or ‘less’) but not the specific amount of
differences (i.e. how much ‘more’ or ‘less’). This
scale is very common
in marketing, satisfaction and attitudinal research.
Using ordinal scale data, we can perform
statistical analysis like Median and Mode, but not
the Mean.
For example, a fast food home delivery shop may
 Interval Scale is a scale in which the
numbers are used to rank attributes such that
numerically equal distances on the scale represent
equal distance in the characteristic being measured. An
interval scale contains all the information of an ordinal
scale, but it also one allows to compare the
difference/distance between attributes. Interval scales
may be either in numeric or semantic formats.
The interval scales allow the calculation of averages
like Mean, Median and Mode and dispersion like Range
and Standard Deviation.
For example, the difference between ‘1’ and ‘2’ is equal
to
the difference between ‘3’ and ‘4’. Further, the
difference between ‘2’ and ‘4’ is twice the difference
between ‘1’ and ‘2’.
Measuring temperature is an example of interval scale.
But, we cannot say 40°C is twice as hot as 20°C.
 Ratio Scale is the highest level of
measurement scales. This has the properties of an
interval scale together with a fixed (absolute) zero point.
The absolute zero point allows us to construct a
meaningful ratio.
Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare both
differences in scores and relative magnitude of scores.
Examples of ratio scales include weights, lengths and
times.
For example, the number of customers of a bank’s ATM
in the last
three months is a ratio scale. This is because you can
compare this with previous three months.
For example, the difference between 10 and 15 minutes
is the same as the difference between 25 and 30
minutes and 30 minutes is twice as long as 15 minutes
TYPES OF SCALING TECHNIQUE
 COMPARATIVE SCALES
In comparative scaling, the respondent is
asked to compare one object with another.

The comparative scales can further be divided

into the following four types of scaling techniques:
(a) Paired Comparison Scale,
(b)Rank Order Scale,
(c) Constant Sum Scale, and
(d) Q-sort Scale.
Paired Comparison Scale:
This is a comparative scaling technique in which
a respondent is presented with two objects at a
time and asked to select one object according
to some criterion. The data obtained are ordinal
in nature.
For example, there are four types of cold drinks
- Coke, Pepsi, Sprite, and Limca. The
respondents can prefer Pepsi to Coke or Coke to
Sprite, etc.
Rank Order Scale:
This is another type of comparative scaling
technique in which respondents are
presented with several items simultaneously
and asked to rank them in the order of
priority. This is an ordinal scale that
describes the favoured and unfavoured
objects, but does not reveal the distance
between the objects.
The resultant data in rank order is ordinal
data. This yields better results when direct
comparison are required between the given
objects.
The major disadvantage of this technique is
that only ordinal data can be generated.
Constant Sum Scale:
In this scale, the respondents are asked to
allocate a constant sum of units such as points,
rupees, or chips among a set of stimulus objects
with respect to some criterion.
For example, you may wish to determine how
important the attributes of price, fragrance,
packaging, cleaning power, and lather of a
detergent are to consumers. Respondents might
be asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the
relative importance of the attributes.
The advantage of this technique is saving time.
However, main disadvantages are the
respondents may
allocate more or fewer points than those
specified. The second problem is respondents
might be confused.
Q-Sort Scale:
This is a comparative scale that uses a rank order
procedure to sort objects based on similarity with
respect to some criterion. The important characteristic
of this methodology is that it is more important to
make comparisons among different responses of a
respondent than the responses between different
respondents. Therefore, it is a comparative method of
scaling rather than an absolute rating scale. In this
method the respondent is given
statements in a large number for describing the
characteristics of a product or a large number of
brands of a product.
NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES
In non-comparative scaling respondents need
only evaluate a single object. Their
evaluation is independent of the other object
which the researcher is studying.

The non-comparative scaling techniques can

be further divided into:
(a)Continuous Rating Scale, and
(b)Itemized Rating Scale.
Continuous Rating Scales :
It is very simple and highly useful. In continuous
rating scale, the respondent’s rate the objects by
placing a mark at the appropriate position on a
continuous line that runs from one extreme of the
criterion variable to the other.

Example :
Question: How would you rate the TV advertisement
as a guide for buying?
Itemized Rating Scales :
Itemized rating scale is a scale having numbers or
brief descriptions associated with each category. The
categories are ordered in terms of scale position and
the respondents are required to select one of the
limited number of categories
that best describes the product, brand, company, or
product attribute being rated. Itemized rating scales
are widely used in marketing research.

Itemised rating scales is further divided into three

parts, namely
(a) Likert scale,
(b) Semantic Differential Scale, and
(c) Stapel Scale.
The itemised rating scales can be in the form of : (a)
graphic, (b) verbal, or (c) numeric as shown below :
Likert Scale:
Likert, is extremely popular for measuring attitudes,
because, the method is simple to administer. With the
Likert scale, the respondents indicate their own
attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or
disagree with carefully worded statements that range
from very positive to very negative towards the
attitudinal
object. Respondents generally choose from five
alternatives (say strongly agree, agree, neither agree
nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree).
A Likert scale may include a number of items or
statements.
Disadvantage of Likert Scale is that it takes longer time
to complete than other itemised rating scales because
respondents have to read each statement.
Despite the above disadvantages, this scale has
several advantages. It is easy to construct, administer
Semantic Differential Scale:
This is a seven point rating scale with end points
associated with bipolar labels (such as good and bad,
complex and simple) that have semantic meaning. It
can be used to find whether a respondent has a
positive or negative attitude towards an object. It has
been widely used in comparing brands, products and
company images. It has also been used to develop
advertising and promotion strategies and in a new
product development study.
Staple Scale:

The Stapel scale was originally developed to measure

the
direction and intensity of an attitude simultaneously.
Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single
adjective as a substitute for the Semantic differential
when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives.
The modified Stapel scale places a single adjective in
the centre of an even number of numerical Values.
 SELECTION OF AN
APPROPRIATE SCALING
TECHNIQUE
A number of issues decide the choice of scaling
technique. Some significant issues are:
1)Problem Definition and Statistical Analysis,
2)The Choice between Comparative and Non-
comparative Scales,
3)Type of Category Labels,
4)Number of Categories,
5)Balanced versus Unbalanced Scale, and
6)Forced versus Non-forced Categories
 CONCLUSION
There are four levels of measurements:
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
The measurement scales, commonly used in
marketing research, can be divided into two
types; comparative and non-comparative
scales.
A number of scaling techniques are available for
measurement of attitudes. There is no unique
way that you can use to select a particular
scaling technique for your research study.
 Data Analysis
The purpose

To answer the research questions and to help

determine the trends and relationships among
the variables
 Data Analysis Process
Prepare tables and graphs

Analyze and interpret findings

Consult the statistician if required

Prepare for editing

Prepare for presentation

Classification of Data Analysis

1. Descriptive Analysis 2. Inferential Analysis

Classification of Descriptive An

a. Frequency Distribution

b. Measure of Central Tendency

c. Measure of Dispersion
f = frequency N= sample size
8. Classification of
DescriptiveAnalysis b.  A statistical
index that describes the average of
the set values.  Kinds of Averages 1.
Mode - a numeric value in a
distribution that occurs most
frequently.  2. Median - an index of
average position in a distribution of
numbers.  3. Mean - the point on the
score scale that is equal to the sum of
the scores divided by the total
number of scores.  Formula: Where:
X= Σ___ X = the mean n Σ = the sum
of X = each individual raw score n =
the number of cases
9. Classification of
DescriptiveAnalysis c. Measure of
Variability  Statistics that concern
the degree to which the scores in a
distribution are different from or
similar to each other.
10. Two Commonly Used Measures
ofVariability 1. Range - the distance
between the highest score and the