Chapter 2

Pressure Distribution in a Fluid

2.1. Pressure and Pressure Gradient
INTRODUCTION

Many fluid problems do not involve motion. They concern the pressure
distribution in a static fluid and its effect on solid surfaces and on floating and
submerged bodies.
When the fluid velocity is zero, denoted as the hydrostatic condition, the pressure
variation is due only to the weight of the fluid.

Important applications OF Pressure Distribution in a Fluid:

1) Pressure distribution in the atmosphere and the oceans,

2) The design of manometer, mechanical, and electronic pressure instruments,
3) Forces on submerged flat and curved surfaces,
4) Buoyancy on a submerged body, and
5) The behavior of floating bodies.
The term pressure is used to indicate the normal force per unit area at a given
point acting on a given plane within the fluid mass of interest.

 A question that immediately arises is how the pressure at a point varies with the
orientation of the plane passing through the point.

 To answer this question, consider the free-body diagram, illustrated in Fig. 2.1, that
was obtained by removing a small triangular wedge of fluid from some arbitrary
location within a fluid mass.

 Since we are considering the situation in which there are no shearing stresses, the
only external forces acting on the wedge are due to the pressure and the weight.

For simplicity the forces in the y direction are not shown, and the z axis is taken as
the vertical axis so the weight acts in the negative z direction.
Figure 2.1 shows a small wedge of fluid at rest of size Δx by Δz by Δs and
depth b into the paper.

There is no shear by definition, but we postulate that the pressures px, pz, and pn

may be different on each face.

The weight of the element also may be important. Summation of forces must
equal zero (no acceleration) in both the x and z directions.

Fig. 2.1. equilibrium of a small wedge of fluid at rest

  Considering figure 2.1.

 but the geometry of the wedge is such that

 Substitution into the previous equation and rearrangement give

These relations illustrate the following important principles of the hydrostatic, or

shear-free, condition:
(1) There is no pressure change in the horizontal direction, and
(2) There is a vertical change in pressure proportional to the density, gravity,
and depth change.
 In the limit as the fluid wedge shrinks to a “point,’’ Δz → 0 and Eqs. (2.3)
become

 Since θ is arbitrary, we conclude that the pressure p at a point in a static fluid is

independent of orientation.
 If there are strain rates in a moving fluid, there will be viscous stresses, both
shear and normal in general.
 Hence the pressure is defined as the average of the three normal stresses σ on
the element

 The minus sign occurs because a compression stress is considered to be negative

whereas p is positive.
 Pressure causes no net force on a fluid element unless it varies spatially.

 consider the pressure acting on the two x faces in Fig. 2.2. Let the pressure vary
arbitrarily.

 The net force in the x direction on the element in Fig. 2.2 is given by

Fig. 2.2. net X force on an element due to pressure variation

 In like manner the net force dFy involves −∂p/∂y, and the net force dFz
concerns −∂p/∂z.
 The total net-force vector on the element due to pressure is

 We recognize the term in parentheses as the negative vector gradient of p.

Denoting f as the net force per unit element volume, we rewrite Eq. (2.8) as

 Thus, it is not the pressure but the pressure gradient causing a net force which
must be balanced by gravity or acceleration or some other effect in the fluid.
2.2. Equilibrium of a Fluid Element
 The pressure gradient is a surface force which acts on the sides of the element.
There may also be a body force, due to electromagnetic or gravitational potentials,
acting on the entire mass of the element.
 Here we consider only the gravity force, or weight of the element

 In general, there may also be a surface force due to the gradient, if any, of the
viscous stresses. For an incompressible fluid with constant viscosity, the net viscous
force is
 The total vector resultant of these three forces pressure, gravity, and viscous
stress must either keep the element in equilibrium or cause it to move with
acceleration a.

Solving for pressure gradient from equation 2.12 leads to

 By components, Eq. (2.13) is equivalent to three simultaneous first-order

differential equations
 Examining Eq. (2.13), we can single out at least four special cases:

1). Flow at rest or at constant velocity: The acceleration and viscous terms
vanish identically, and p depends only upon gravity and density. This is the
hydrostatic condition.
2). Rigid-body translation and rotation: The viscous term vanishes identically,
and p depends only upon the term ρ(g − a).
3). Irrotational motion ( V 0 ): The viscous term vanishes identically,
and an exact integral called Bernoulli’s equation can be found for the pressure
distribution.
4). Arbitrary viscous motion: Nothing helpful happens, no general rules apply,
but still the integration is quite straightforward.
 Pressure readings can be :
(1) The absolute or total magnitude or
(2) The value relative to the local ambient Atmosphere

Fig. 2.3 Illustration of absolute, gage, and vacuum pressure readings.

 The second case occurs because many pressure instruments are of differential
type and record, not an absolute magnitude, but the difference between the fluid
pressure and the atmosphere.
 The measured pressure may be either higher or lower than the local
atmosphere, and each case is given a name:
1. p > pa Gage pressure: p(gage) = p− pa
2. p < pa Vacuum pressure:
p (vacuum) =pa − p

 A typical situation is shown in Fig. 2.3. The local atmosphere is at, say, 90,000
Pa, which might reflect a storm condition in a sea-level location or normal
conditions at an altitude of 1000 m.
 Thus, on this day, pa = 90,000 Pa absolute = 0 Pa gage = 0 Pa vacuum. Suppose

gage 1 in a laboratory reads p1 = 120,000 Pa absolute. This value may be reported

as a gage pressure, p1 = 120,000 − 90,000 = 30,000 Pa gage. (One must also record
the atmospheric pressure in the laboratory, since pa changes gradually).

 Suppose gage 2 reads p2 = 50,000 Pa absolute. Locally, this is a vacuum pressure

and might be reported as p2 = 90,000 − 50,000 = 40,000 Pa vacuum.

 2.3. Hydrostatic Pressure Distributions
If the fluid is at rest or at constant velocity, a = 0 and 2 V 0 . Equation (2.13)
for the pressure distribution reduces to

 This is a hydrostatic distribution and is correct for all fluids at rest, regardless of
their viscosity, because the viscous term vanishes identically.

 Thus Eq. (2.15) states that a fluid in hydrostatic equilibrium will align its
constant-pressure surfaces everywhere normal to the local-gravity vector.
 The maximum pressure increase will be in the direction of gravity, i.e.,
“down.’’ If the fluid is a liquid, its free surface, being at atmospheric pressure,
will be normal to local gravity, or “horizontal.’’
 For coordinate systems of z is upward positive, Thus the local-gravity vector
becomes:
 For these coordinates Eq. (2.15) has the components

 The first two of which tell us that p is independent of x and y. Hence

∂p/∂z can be replaced by the total derivative dp/dz, and the hydrostatic condition
reduces to

 Equation (2.18) is the solution to the hydrostatic problem. The integration

requires an assumption about the density and gravity distribution. Gases and
liquids are usually treated differently.
We state the following conclusions about a hydrostatic condition:

 Pressure in a continuously distributed uniform static fluid varies only

with vertical distance and is independent of the shape of the container.
 The pressure is the same at all points on a given horizontal plane in the
fluid. The pressure increases with depth in the fluid.

Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids

Liquids are so nearly incompressible that we can neglect their density

variation in hydrostatics. Thus, we assume constant density in liquid hydrostatic
calculations, for which Eq. (2.18) integrates to
Table 2.1. specific weight of some common fluids
Hydrostatic Pressure in Gases

Gases are compressible, with density nearly proportional to pressure. Thus,

density must be considered as a variable in Eq. (2.18) if the integration carries
over large pressure changes. It is sufficiently accurate to introduce the perfect-
gas law P = ρRT in Eq. (2.18) .

2.3
2.4. Application to Manometry

 From the hydrostatic formula (2.20), a change in elevation z 2 − z1 of a liquid

is equivalent to a change in pressure (p2 − p1)/γ.

 Thus, a static column of one or more liquids or gases can be used to measure
pressure differences between two points. Such a device is called a manometer.
 If multiple fluids are used, we must change the density in the formula as we
move from one fluid to another.
 Figure 2.8 illustrates the use of the formula with a column of multiple fluids.
The pressure change through each fluid is calculated separately.
 If we wish to know the total change p5 − p1, we add the successive changes p2

− p1, p3 − p2, p4 − p3, and p5 − p4.

2.4
 Pressure Increases Downward

The basic hydrostatic relation, Eq. 2.18, is mathematically correct but vexing to
engineers because it combines to negative signs to have the pressure increase
downward. When calculating hydrostatic pressure changes, engineers work
instinctively by simply having the pressure increase downward and decrease upward.
If point 2 is distance h below point 1 in a uniform liquid, then P2 = P1 + ρgh.

Fig. 2.5 Evaluating pressure changes through a column of multiple fluids.

 A Simple Manometer

Fig. 2.6 simple open manometer for measuring P(A) relative to atmospheric pressure.

2.5

Any two points at the same elevation in a continuous mass of the same
static fluid will be at the same pressure.
A complicated multiple - fluid Manometer

Fig. 2.7 a complicated multiple fluid - manometer to relative P(A) to P(B).

2.6
 Class work
1. Determine the pressure difference (Pa) between points A and B. All fluids
are at 20°C
2.5. Hydrostatic Forces on
Plane Surfaces
A common problem in the design of structures which interact with fluids is the computation (the
procedure of calculating) of the hydrostatic force on a plane surface.

If we neglect density changes in the fluid, Eq. (2.20) applies and the pressure on any submerged
surface varies linearly with depth.

Figure 2.11 shows a plane panel of arbitrary shape completely submerged in a liquid.

The panel plane makes an arbitrary angle θ with the horizontal free surface, so that the depth
varies over the panel surface.

If h is the depth to any element area dA of the plate, from Eq. (2.20) the pressure there is p = p a

+γh.
Fig. 2.11 Hydrostatic force and center of pressure on an
arbitrary plane surface of area A inclined at an angle θ below
the free surface.
Then the total hydrostatic force on one side of the plate is given by

The remaining integral is evaluated by noticing from Fig. 2.11 that h= ξ sin θ and,
by definition, the centroidal slant distance from the surface to the plate is

Therefore, since θ is constant along the plate, Eq. (2.35) becomes

Noticing that ξCG sin θ = hCG, the depth straight down from the surface to the plate
centroid. Thus
The force on one side of any plane submerged surface in a uniform fluid equals
the pressure at the plate centroid times the plate area, independent of the shape of
the plate or the angle θ at which it is slanted.
F does not act through the centroid but below it toward the high-pressure side. Its
line of action passes through the center of pressure CP of the plate. Center of
pressure is in general below centroid since pressure increases with depth.
To find the coordinates (xCP, yCP), we sum moments of the elemental force p dA
about the centroid and equate to the moment of the resultant F.

The term paydA vanishes by definition of centroidal axes. Introducing ξ = ξCG− y,

where again ydA= 0 and Ixx is the area moment of inertia of the plate area
about its centroidal x axis, computed in the plane of the plate.

Similarly:

where Ixy is the product of inertia of the plate, again computed in the plane of
the plate. Substituting for F gives
If Ixy = 0, usually implying symmetry, xCP= 0 and the center of pressure lies
directly below the centroid on the y axis.
In most cases the ambient pressure pa is neglected because it acts on both sides
of the plate; e.g., the other side of the plate is inside a ship or on the dry side of a
gate or dam.
In this case pCG =γ hCG, and the center of pressure becomes independent of
specific weight

Fig. 2.13 Centroidal moments of inertia for various cross sections: (a) rectangle,
(b) circle
 Fig. 2.13 Centroidal moments of inertia for various cross sections: (c) triangle,
and (d) semicircle.

Gage Pressure Formulas

 In most cases the ambient pressure pa is neglected because it acts on both sides
of the plate; for example, the other side of the plate is inside a ship or on the dry
side of a gate or dam.
In this case and the center of pressure becomes independent of specific
weight:
 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces
 The resultant pressure force on a curved surface is most easily computed by separating it
into horizontal and vertical components.
 Consider the arbitrary curved surface sketched in Fig. 2.14a. The incremental pressure
forces, being normal to the local area element, vary in direction along the surface and thus
cannot be added numerically.

Fig. 2.14 :Computation of hydrostatic force on a curved surface: (a) submerged curved surface;
(b) free-body diagram of fluid above the curved surface.
Figure 2.14b shows a free-body diagram of the column of fluid contained in the
vertical projection above the curved surface.
The desired forces FH and FV are exerted by the surface on the fluid column.
Other forces are shown due to fluid weight and horizontal pressure on the vertical
sides of this column. The column of fluid must be in static equilibrium.
A general rule states that :

The horizontal component of force on a curved surface equals the force on the plane
area formed by the projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane normal to the
component.

And, Summation of vertical forces on the fluid free body then shows that
 Hydrostatic Forces in Layered Fluids
The formulas for plane and curved
surfaces are valid only for a fluid of
uniform density.
If the fluid is layered with different
densities, as in Fig. 2.15, a single formula
cannot solve the problem because the
slope of the linear pressure distribution
changes between layers.
However, the formulas apply separately
to each layer, and thus the appropriate
remedy is to compute and sum the
separate layer forces and moments.
Fig. 2.15 Hydrostatic forces on a surface immersed
in a layered fluid must be summed in separate
pieces.
Consider the slanted plane surface immersed in a two-layer fluid in Fig. 2.15. The
slope of the pressure distribution becomes steeper as we move down into the denser
second layer.
The total force on the plate does not equal the pressure at the centroid times the plate
area, but the plate portion in each layer does satisfy the formula, so that we can sum
forces to find the total:

Similarly, the centroid of the plate portion in each layer can be used to locate the
center of pressure on that portion

The center of pressure of the total force F=∑Fi can then be found by summing
moments about some convenient point such as the surface.
 Buoyancy and Stability
Buoyancy
The same principles used to compute hydrostatic forces on surfaces can be applied to
the net pressure force on a completely submerged or floating body.
The results are the two laws of buoyancy discovered by Archimedes in the third century
B.C.:

1. A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical buoyant force equal to the weight

of the fluid it displaces.

2. A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which it floats.
Referring to Fig. 2.16. From Eq. (2.45) for vertical force, the body experiences a net
upward force
Alternatively, we can sum the vertical forces
on elemental vertical slices through the
immersed body:

Equation (2.49) assumes that the fluid has

uniform specific weight.
The line of action of the buoyant force passes
through the center of volume of the displaced
body; i.e., its center of mass is computed as if it
had uniform density. Fig. 2.16 Two different approaches to the
buoyant force on an arbitrary immersed
This point through which FB acts is called the body: (a) forces on upper and lower curved
center of buoyancy, commonly labeled B or CB surfaces; (b) summation of elemental
vertical pressure forces.
on a drawing.
Equation (2.49) can be generalized to a layered fluid (LF) by summing the weights of
each layer of density ρi displaced by the immersed body:

Each displaced layer would have its own center of volume, and one would have to
sum moments of the incremental buoyant forces to find the center of buoyancy of the
immersed body.
Floating bodies are a special case; only a portion of the body is submerged, with the
remainder poking up out of the free surface.
This is illustrated in Fig. 2.17, where the shaded portion is the displaced volume.
Equation (2.49) is modified to apply to this smaller volume
Not only does the buoyant force equal the body weight, but also they are collinear
since there can be no net moments for static equilibrium.
Occasionally, a body will have exactly the right weight and volume for its ratio to
equal the specific weight of the fluid.
If so, the body will be neutrally buoyant and will remain at rest at any point where it
is immersed in the fluid.
A submarine can achieve positive, neutral, or negative buoyancy by pumping water
in or out of its ballast tanks.

Fig. 2.17 Static equilibrium of a floating body.

 STABILITY
A floating body as in Fig. 2.17 may not approve of the position in which it is floating.

The only way to tell for sure whether a floating position is stable is to “disturb’’ the body a
slight amount mathematically and see whether it develops a restoring moment which will
return it to its original position.

Fig. 2.18 Calculation of the metacenter M of the floating body shown in

(a). Tilt the body a small angle . Either
(b) B moves far out (point M above G denotes stability);or
(c) B moves slightly (point M below G denotes instability).
Figure 2.18 illustrates the computation for the usual case of a symmetric floating
body. The steps are as follows:

1. The basic floating position is calculated from Eq. (2.51). The body’s center of mass
G and center of buoyancy B are computed.

2. The body is tilted a small angle Δθ, and a new waterline is established for the body
to float at this angle. The new position B ′ of the center of buoyancy is calculated. A
vertical line drawn upward from B′ intersects the line of symmetry at a point M, called
the metacenter, which is independent of Δθ for small angles.

3. If point M is above G, that is, if the metacentric height MG is positive, a restoring

moment is present and the original position is stable. If M is below G (negative MG ,
the body is unstable and will overturn if disturbed. Stability increases with increasing
MG
 Center of Buoyancy (B) The point of application of the force of buoyancy on
the body is known as the center of buoyancy.
 Metacenter (M): The point about which a body in stable equilibrium start to
oscillate when given a small angular displacement is called metacenter.
 It may also be defined as point of intersection of the axis of body passing
through center of gravity (CG or G) and original center of buoyancy (B) and a
vertical line passing through the center of buoyancy (B’) of tilted position of
body.
 Metacentric height (GM): The distance between the center of gravity (G) of
floating body and the metacenter (M) is called metacentric height. (i.e., distance
GM shown in fig).
 Thus, the metacentric height is a property of the cross section for the given
weight, and its value gives an indication of the stability of the body.
GM=BM-BG
Stability Related to Waterline Area
Pressure Distribution in Rigid-Body Motion
FLUIDS IN RIGID-BODY MMOTION
 End of Chapter 2

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