COURSE OUTLINE

I. LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR OVERVIEW

II. BASIC SENTENCE PATTERN

III. PARTS OF SPEECH

IV. SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

V. VOICE

VI. NEGATION

VII. INTERROGATIVES

VIII. EMBEDDING
 LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
OVERVIEW
Language is the ability to produce and comprehend both spoken and
written (and in the case of sign language, signed) words. Understanding
how language works means reaching across many branches of
psychology—everything from basic neurological functioning to high-
level cognitive processing.

While every language has a different set of rules, all languages do obey
rules. These rules are known as grammar. Speakers of a language have
internalized the rules and exceptions for that language’s grammar.
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
COMPETENCIES
1. Linguistic competence - knowing how to use the grammar, syntax
and vocabulary of a language. Linguistic competence asks: What
words do I use? How do I put them into phrases and sentences?
2. Sociolinguistic competence - knowing how to use and respond to
language appropriately, given the setting, the topic and the
relationships among the people communicating. Sociolinguistic
competence asks: Which words and phrases fit this setting and this
topic? How can I express a specific attitude (courtesy, authority,
friendliness, respect) when I need to? How do I know what attitude
another person is expressing?
3. Discourse competence - knowing how to interpret the larger context
and how to construct longer stretches of language so that the parts
make up a coherent whole. Discourse competence asks: How are
words, phrases and sentences put together to create conversations,
speeches, email messages, newspaper articles?
4. Strategic competence - knowing how to recognize and repair
communication breakdowns, how to work around gaps in one’s
knowledge of the language, and how to learn more about the language
in the context. Strategic competence asks: How do I know when I’ve
misunderstood or when someone has misunderstood me? What do I
say then? How can I express my ideas if I don’t know the name of
something or the right verb form to use?
DESCRIPTIVE AND
PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR
Prescriptive grammar describes when people focus on talking about
how a language should or ought to be used. It tells you how you should
speak, and what type of language to avoid. This is commonly found in
English classes as well as other language classes, where the aim is to
teach people how to use language in a very particular (typically
described as ‘proper’ or ‘correct’) way.
Descriptive grammar, on the other hand, focuses on describing the
language as it is used, not saying how it should be used.
 BASIC SENTENCE PATTERN
1. N be Adj
• where the adjective is a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT, in particular a
PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. The adjective refers back to the subject. The
copula verb be means “may be described as.”
• Roses are sweet. (subject complement = predicative adjective)

2. N be UW (= uninflected word)
• where the uninflected word is an ADVERBIAL such as here, there, up,
down, in, out, inside, upstairs, downstairs, on, off, now, then, yesterday
and tomorrow. Be has the meaning of “be located” or “occur”.
• The meeting was yesterday. (adverbial)
3. N1 be N1
• where the superscript means that the two nouns have the same
referent. The second noun following the verb is also a SUBJECT
COMPLEMENT, in particular a PREDICATE NOUN or PREDICATIVE
NOMINATIVE.
• Her neighbour is my cousin. (subject complement+ predicative
nominative)

4. N InV
• where the INTRANSITIVE VERB does not require an object. The verb
being self-sufficient can stand alone with its subject.
• Glasses break.
5. N1 TrV (=transitive V) N2
• where N2 does not have the same referent as N1. N2 is called the
DIRECT OBJECT of the verb, “the receiver of the action”.
• The girl buys yellow roses.

6. N1 TrV N2 N3
• where the superscripts 1,2, and 3 inidicate that each noun has a
different referent.
• Mother gave a gift to the orphan. (usually reads as Mother gave the
orphan a gift.)
7. }N2
• }Adj
• }Pronoun
• N1 TrV N2
• }Adv (of place(, uninflected)
• }Verb, present participle
• } Verb, past participle
There are choices of different forms in sentence final position. These
are illustrated as follows.

• (object complement) The class voted Henry secretary.

• (adjective) The principal found the gardener efficient.
• (pronoun) We considered the writer you.
• (adverb of place) The teacher directed them outside.
• (present participle) She was praying
• (past participle) I imagine my father overworked.
 NOUNS

• FORMATION
Most nouns consist of a single meaningful unit. However, we can
form nouns by adding other meaningful units such as a suffix or
another word.
• Suffixes
We can form nouns by adding a suffix to a word such as verb or an
adjective.
verb + er composer
adjective + ness sadness
• Singular/Plural
Nouns can refer to a single thing (singular) or a number of things
(plural). IN forming the plural, we generally add a suffix.

• ~To make a noun plural, we generally add –s to the end of the noun.
space- spaces donkey- donkeys

• ~If a noun ends in –x, -s, -ss, -sh, -ch or –z then we add –es.
bus-buses church- churches

• ~When a noun ends in a consonant followed by –y, we form the plural

with –ies.
fairy-fairies daisy-daisies
• ~Certain nouns which end in –f or –fe form their plural with –ves.
loaf-loaves wife-wives
• ~Most nouns ending in –o add –es for the plural.
stereo-stereos potato- potatoes
• ~ Some nouns from other languages have “foreign” plurals.
nucleus- nuclei formula- formulae
• ~Some nouns change to a different form in plural.
child – children mouse- mice
• ~Some nouns have the same form for both singular and plural.
deer-deer sheep- sheep
• Collective Nouns
Certain nouns refer to a group of people or thing. You can use
either a singular or a plural verb after a collective noun. If you intend to
refer to the group as a whole, you will use a singular verb. If you are
referring more to the members of the group, you will use the plural
form of the verb.
a school of fish a cackle of hens
• Compound Nouns
A compound noun can consist of two nouns, a noun and another
word such as an adjective, sometimes two separate words and
sometimes they are joined with a hyphen or even written as a single
word.
road works natural resources human race
dry-cleaning teabag
• Creating New Nouns
~When we need a new noun in English, we often incorporate
words or phrases from other languages.
billabong (an aboriginal word)

• ~If it is something technical, scientific or legal we often use words

from Latin or Ancient Greek.
autograph

• ~Sometimes we take an old noun and use it with a different meaning

or we can take an adjective or verb and make it into a ‘thing’
computer mouse
• Nominalisation
One way of making a text more compact and ‘written to change
verbs’ into nouns.
vaporization- when liquid changes into gas

• Extended Nouns
Sometimes a noun group can consist of two or more people,
places or things.
Example: Ben and Ben
 Other Types of Nouns
• Living/Non-Living Nouns
The world could be represented in terms of living things and non-living
things.
microorganisms- living cylinder- non-living

• Human/Non-Human Nouns
Living things can be human or non-human.
bears marsupials

• Masculine/Feminine
We also use language to divide the world into gender groups. We have
masculine nouns referring to males and feminine nouns referring to females.
uncle-aunt ram-ewe
• Proper/Common Nouns
Named people, places or things are called proper nouns and
other nouns are referred to as common nouns.
artist- Leonardo da Vinci shirt- Nafnaf

• Concrete/Abstract Nouns
Concrete nouns refer to those things, which are physical,
material, and tangible. When we refer to things such as ideas or
concepts or feelings, which cannot be touched or seen, we use abstract
nouns.
book-concrete knowledge-abstract
• Countable/Uncountable Nouns
Certain nouns refer to things, which are able to be counted, some
nouns, however refer to things, which are seen as uncountable mass.
ten mangoes-countable research information-uncountable
 PRONOUNS

FORMATION
Subject Object
Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st person I We Me Us
(speaking)
2nd person You You You You
(spoken to)

3rd person She/He/It They Her/Him/It Them

(spoken of)
FUNCTION

• A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as

the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I,"
"you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they."
• An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as
an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase.
The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it,"
"us," "you," and "them."
• Examples of subjective personal pronoun:

• I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.
• When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.
• After many years, they returned to their homeland.
• Examples of Objective Personal Pronouns:

• After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it into the garbage can.-
Direct Object of the Verb(threw)
• Deborah and Roberta will meet us at the newest café in the market. –
Compound Verb (will meet)
• Give the list to me.- Preposition (to)
• Christopher was surprised to see her at the drag races.- Infinitive
Phrase (to see)
Possessive Pronoun
A possessive pronoun answers the question “who owns it?”
•This is yours.
•The smallest gift is mine.
•His is on the kitchen counter.

Singular Plural
First person mine ours
Second person yours yours
Third Person hers/his theirs
They fulfill two functions: they can serve as a possessive determiner
before a noun phrase or they can replace a noun phrase inflected for
possession.
This is Sheila’s book. -------This is her book. (possessive determiner)
This book is Sheila’s. ------ This book is hers (possessive pronoun)
Determiner Function Pronominal Function
Singular Plural Singular Plural
First person my your mine ours
Second your your yours yours
person
Third her/his/its their hers/his theirs
person
• It replaces an entire noun phrase and can function as subjects or
objects.
A. Ben has an excellent word processing program.
B. Really? Mine has more options. (subject)

Antoinnette and Mary’s candies will be delivered tomorrow.

(Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.) (subject)
A. Do you like Joe’s new car?
B. I prefer yours. (object)
• Relative Pronoun
The main relative pronoun are who, whom, whose, that and
which. Who and whom refers to persons. Who is the subject and whom
is the object. These days it is common not to use the ‘whom’ form,
particularly in spoken language. ‘That’ could be used with either people
or things. ‘Whose’ (the possessive form) can be used with people or
things. ‘Which is generally only used with things.

The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always
elected.
The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved
into the storage closet.
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns also answer the questions “who and what?” It refers
to unknown or unspecified person, place, or thing.

FORMATION
Indefinite Pronouns
S P S/P
(-thing, -body, -one)
much both all
other few most
little many none
one several some
• Singular:
Suffix
-thing (something, anything, everything, nothing)
-body (somebody, anybody, everybody, nobody)
-one (someone, anyone, everyone, no one)
Ex. Somebody is coming to dinner.
Other Singular Indefinite pronouns
, much, other, little, one
Ex. Little is expected.
• Plural:
both, few, many, several
Ex. Both reported on time.

• Either plural or singular:

all. most, none, some
Ex. Some of the dirt has become a permanent part of the rug.
Some of the trees have been weakened by the storm.
Reflexive Pronoun

FORMATION
Singular Plural

First Person myself ourselves

Second Person yourself yourselves

Third Person himself, herself, itself themselves

• MEANING
• It adds information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun or pronoun
near the beginning of a sentence.
Example:
• Michael taught himself to play the piano.
• Gloria brought herself a new pair of jeans.
• Babies soon feed themselves.
• We watched ourselves on the TV monitor.

• It adds emphasis to a noun or pronoun in the same sentence.

Example:
• The President himself attended the gala opening.
• We spliced the film ourselves.
• I sautéed the mushrooms myself. .
 VERBS
• Action Verbs
When we are talking about ‘doings and ‘happenings’ we use action verbs.
These generally represent more physical action around us. Action verbs can also
be actions you can't see such as:
• ~Mental
Sue thought about pets.
• ~Physical
Desam ran so fast.

Action verbs are time-telling verbs. They also tell when something takes
place.
My dog runs faster than yours. (present tense)
Yesterday he ran around the block. (past tense)
Saying Verbs
Sometimes experience is not represented directly, but it is reported
through someone else’s words.
COMMON SAYING VERBS

say cry scream shout whisper

plead stammer explain suggest imply

report murmur ask tell promise

claim deny respond reply continue

• Sensing Verbs
Used only in relation to humans, describing their thought,
opinions, beliefs, feelings.

Examples:
I feel bad about losing that game.
Your voice sounds terrible.
The antagonist looks calm.
• ~Feature in arguments and discussions (e.g. It is thought that…, I
believe that…, etc.) where we are interested in people’s ideas.
• ~Gives insight into the characters of a story by describing what is going
on in their minds.
• ~They are often used when characters reflect on the action or evaluate
what is happening in the story.
• Examples:
“I wish the storm will come!” thought Janus.
Ezekiel thought there must be a thunderstorm coming on.
I wish it wouldn’t flap its wings.
Sensing verbs:

 Think believe wish disgust

 Know forgot see assume
 Reflect imagine recollect consider
 Comprehend decide realize hypothesize
 Feel want rift despise
 Love hate fear hurt
 Peace upset taste smell
• Relating Verb
~A relating verb connects a subject and its complement. It is also called
linking verbs.

• FORMATION
Linking verbs are often forms of the verb to be
Noun group (be) Noun Group
Toni Morrison was the first African-American woman to win the Nobel
Peace Prize.
• Noun Group (be) adjectival
The writer has wonderful ideas.
• Noun Group (be) Adverbial
The car show is in Sydney.
Linking verbs are sometimes verbs related to the five senses (look,
sound, smell, feel, taste)
appear John appeared happy when the company
promoted him.
feel She felt really happy with the new baby.
look This person looks really tired.
smell That perfume smelled so fresh.
sound She sounded very surprised when she heard the
news.
taste This grapefruit tastes very bitter.
seem This secretary seems very efficient.
TENSE
Tense tells us about time- when action takes place. The verb group tell us
whether something is happening in the present or past.
FORMATION
Present
Most English verbs have two present tense; the present simple and the present
continuous.
Present Simple
The present simple is generally formed using single word. Most verbs in the
present simple are fairly regular. The verb ‘to be’ is irregular.
SINGULAR PLURAL
1st person I am we are
2nd person you are you are
3rd person he/she/it is they are
Present Continuous
The present continuous is formed by using a helping verb and present
participle (ending in –ing).

HELPING VERB PRESENT

(AUXILIARY) PARTICIPLE
he is going
they are finishing
we are hoping
I am doing
she is having
you are taking
• Past
There are several past tenses in English, the most common are past simple, past
continuous and perfect.
• Past Simple
~The past simple is generally formed by adding –ed to the stem of the verb.
work-worked talk-talked
~If the verb stem ends in –e, simply add d
use- used decide- decided
~If the verbs ends in a stressed vowel + consonant, double the consonant and add –ed
plan-planned prefer- preferred
~If the verb ends in a consonant + -y, change the y to an I and add –ed.
cry- cried study-studied
~Some verbs formed their past form irregularly.
do-did swim-swam
Past Continuous
The past continuous tense is formed by using the past tense of a helping
verb + the present participle.
HELPING VERB (AUXILIARY) PRESENT PARTICIPLE
he was going
they were finishing
we were hoping
I was doing
she was having
you were taking
Perfect Tense
The perfect tense is formed by using the helping verb ‘to have’ plus the
past participle.

HELPING VERB PAST PARTICPLE

(AUXILIARY)
he has gone
they have finished
we have promised
I have felt
she has had
you have been
• VERB-TENSES: Their Meanings and Common Uses
SIMPLE ASPECT: complete wholes; unchanging
SIMPLE PRESENT : the present in general
• To talk about our thoughts and feelings at the present moment or about our
immediate reactions to something
I’m terribly busy.
He looks excited.
• To talk about a settled state of affairs which includes the present moment
He lives in Sagada now.
Our teacher is very competent and considerate. We like her very much.
• To say something is always or generally true
There are 24 hours in a day
• To talk about something that a particular person or thing does regularly
or habitually .
I get up early to take a bath.
Every Sunday , I attend church services.
• To discuss what happens what happens in a book, play or film
In the movie, he plays, the character of Juan Tamad.
In those early chapters, he keeps himself isolated to other people in
the village.
• To describe an event such as a sports match or a ceremony at the time it
is happening as radio and TV commentators do
James takes the ball, then passes it quickly to Alfie. Alfie turns,
shoots and scores two points.
• SIMPLE PAST: Stating a definite time in the past
An adjunct of time or other time expression is necessary to specify
the particular time in the past we are referring to.
• To say that an event occurred or that something was the case at a
particular time in the past.
The university officials flew into Jakarta last week to sign a
memorandum of agreement with a sister school.
• To say that a situation existed over a period of time in the past.
He lived in his ancestral home in the countryside during his last years.
• To talk about an activity that took place regularly or repeatedly in the past,
but which no longer occurs.
We swam in the river a great deal in my childhood.
• SIMPLE FUTURE: An expression of what we think might happen or what
we intend to happen
• To say that something is planned to happen, or that we think it is likely to
happen in the future
What do you think Ella will do to fix it ?
• To talk about general truths and to say what we can be expected to
happen if a particular situation arises
An attack of dengue fever can keep a man off work for a few days.
• PERFECT ASPECT: PRIOR
1. PRESENT PERFECT: the past in relation to the present
To mention something that happened in the past but we do not
want to state a specific time.
I have read the book several times.
2. PAST PERFECT: Events before a particular time in the past
• To talk about a past event or situation that occurred before a particular
time in the past
By noon, students had gathered at the quadrangle with their
placards.

3. FUTURE PERFECT
• To refer to something that has not happened yet, but will happen
before a particular time in the future.
By the time he graduates, his parents will already have left for New
Zealand
• PROGRESSIVE ASPECT: incomplete action; changing
1. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE: Accent on the present
• To talk about something that is happening at the moment we are speaking
I’m already feeling bored and hungry.
• To emphasize the present moment or to indicate that a situation is
temporary
She’s spending the summer in her hometown.
• To indicate changes, trends, developments and progress
He’s performance in class is improving.
• To talk about a habitual action that takes place regularly, especially one
which is new or temporary
She’s spending a lot on clothes these days.
2. PAST PROGRESSIVE: accent on the past
• To talk about continued states or repeated actions which occurred in
the past
He’s body was trembling; his fever was rising.
• To contrast a situation with an event which happened just after that
situation existed. We use the past continuous to describe the first
event and the simple past to describe the event which occurred after it.
We were standing at the main gate waiting to welcome the guest
speaker. He arrived 20 minutes later.
3. FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
• To say something will surely happen because arrangements have
been made
They will be sending their students regularly to the University
for English proficiency enhancement.

• To emphasize the duration of a recent event

She’s been crying bitterly.
• PRESENT-PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
1. PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
• To talk about an activity or situation that started at some time in the past, continued, and is
still happening now.
The economy has been declining in many parts of the world.

2. PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

• To emphasize the recentness and duration of a continuous activity which took place before a
particular time in the past.
The old woman had been living alone in that dilapidated house.
• To say that something was expected, wished for, or intended before a particular time in the
past.
I had been expecting a phenomenal rise in his political career.

3. FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

• To emphasize the duration to an event at a specific time in the future
By January 2011, she will have been serving this university for 38 years.
 ADJECTIVES
Articles answer the question ‘which one’
• FORMATION
The indefinite article is usually a, but it changes to an in front of a word beginning
with a vowel sound. In the plural, we might use no article or a word like some.

• Indefinite Article – a, an
• Used when talking about your profession
I am an English teacher.
• One as an example of the class.
Making a violin requires technical knowledge.
• First mention
“I ate an apple for lunch. The apple I ate came from Marv.”
• Definite Article – the
• The Class
The Labrador is one of the smartest animals.
• Second Mention
“This is a piece of puzzle. The piece fits into the top.”
• Used for an item identified by its uniqueness.
The earth is the third planet from the sun.
• Used before a noun which we know that it is only of a particular thing
The White House
• Used for an item identified by shared knowledge. (a) both see it and (b)
both know which one
Would you hand me the key?
• Pointing Words
Pointing adjectives tell which one by pointing at objects. Pointing adjectives
includes this, that, these, and those.

• FORMATION
Near Far
SINGULAR this that
PLURAL these those

• Examples
I will exult after I get this job.
Beware! That animal escaped from the zoo.
These baseball bats were donated by the mayor.
I think those cars were smuggled from Europe
• Possessives
Possessive are used to show ownership or possession.

• FORMATION
There are two types of possessives: possessive determiners (my, your,
his, her, its, our, their) and possessive adjectives.
• Examples
This is my website.
It is your computer.
That was your mother on the phone.
We went on our retreat last week.
It was their family who won the showcase.
• Quantity Adjectives
Adjectives of quantity tell how much or how many.

• Quantity in bulk: express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of.

It gives me a small idea of his way of talking.
• Quantity in number: which may be expressed exactly by numbers or
remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts.
He found in the pathway fourteen Spaniards.
I have one brother and two sisters.
We gave several thousand pounds for it.
• Opinion Adjectives
Opinion adjectives give the writer’s or speaker’s evaluation of the thing in
question.

• FORMATION
Adding suffixes to a word such as a noun or verb can form opinion adjectives.

noun + -ful thoughtful

noun + -y messy
noun + -ish yellowish
noun + -able/ible respectable
noun + -ous marvelous
verb + -ing frightening
verb + -ed embarassed
• Comparing Adjectives
Comparing adjectives tell us the relative amount of a quality.
Comparing adjectives are often referred to as comparatives or
superlatives.

• FORMATION
• Most opinion adjectives and factual adjectives can be used in
comparative way. To make a comparative or superlative, you add –er or
–est to the adjective.
tall- taller- tallest
sad- sadder- saddest
• Classifying Adjectives
Classifying adjectives are used to place something into particular group;
‘what type’.

• FORMATION
• Classifying adjectives often look like factual adjectives and can be formed in the
same way.
• Many classifiers are actually nouns being used with the function of classifying:
motor boat
cargo ships
• Sometimes a classifier can be a verb
boiled potatoes
dancing shoes
• Adjectival Phrases
• An adjectival phrase is a noun group preceded by a preposition.
PREPOSITION NOUN GROUP
in the next room
beside the bed
from next door
with the dirty old jeans
• Other Related Concepts
1. Restrictive/Nonrestrictive adjectives
RESTRICTIVE adjectives are necessary for defining which noun is being referred to while NON-
RESTRICTIVE adjectives merely add information without being essential for identification.
A concrete house. (restrictive)
My uncle owns a house, built of concrete materials. (non-restrictive)

2. POLARITY refers to positive and negative contrasts in a language.

Positive polarity Negative polarity
big small, little
old young
long short
good bad
fast show
Order of Adjectives in Noun Groups
When two or more adjectives are used in a structure, they
usually occur in a particular order or sequence as follows:

DET opinion size shape conditio age color origin NOU

n N
many pretty small round chipped antiqu blue Chines Vases
e e
 ADVERBS AND ADVERBIALS
• ADVERBS
ADVERBS modify or change the meaning of other words such as verbs,
adjectives, another adverb, or even a whole sentence.
(verb modifier) The athlete can run fast.
(adjective modifier) Sailboats are really beautiful to watch.
(adverb modifier) The athlete can run very fast.
(sentence modifier) Perhaps, Nena’s family will give a party
• Adverbs or adverbials vary in for as follows:
Adverbial clause: The child cried because he was hungry.
Adverbial phrase: Diane sang very sweetly.
Prepositional clause: She sang during our class reunion.
Word: We eagerly look forward to your
graduation.

• Adverbs can be readily recognized through certain affixes. For example:

Suffix –ly hopefully, popularly
Prefix a- aloud, adrift, anew
Suffix- wise lengthwise, clockwise
Suffix-wards backward(s), forward(s)
• Kinds of adverbs
• Adverbs of frequency: answer the question how often?
(always, never, usually, rarely)
• Adverbs relative time: can be used with all tenses as meaning permits
(just, still, already, lately)
• Adverbs of manner: answer the question how? orhow well?
(carefully, eagerly, clearly, quickly)
• Adverbs of place: answer the question where?
(here, in the city)
• Adverbs of time: answer the question when?
(today, on April 15)
• Adverbs that emphasize: Only and even
• Roles of Adverbials
Modifies a verb
• Tells more about the verb
a. Where?
Ex. You’ll find the package inside.
b. When?
Ex. The guests arrived late.
c. In what manner?
Ex. The pianist performed brilliantly.
d. To what extent?
Ex. The patient has fully recovered.
• Modifies an adjective
Ex. Claire was too clever for words.
His face was very red.
• Modifies another adverb
Ex. Vincent spoke very highly of you.
They worked awfully hard.
• Modifies a sentence
Ex. Honestly, it doesn’t matter at all.
Technically, it was my fault.
In a strange way, I really respect him.
 CONJUNCTION
• A conjunction is a word that links words, phrases, or clauses. There are
three types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative
conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating
conjunctions may join single words, or they may join groups of words,
but they must always join similar elements: e.g. subject+subject, verb
phrase+verb phrase, sentence+sentence. When a coordinating
conjunction is used to join elements, the element becomes a compound
element. Correlative conjunctions also connect sentence elements of
the same kind: however, unlike coordinating conjunctions, correlative
conjunctions are always used in pairs. Subordinating conjunctions, the
largest class of conjunctions, connect subordinate clauses to a main
clause. These conjunctions are adverbs used as conjunctions.
• COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

F A N B O Y S
for and nor but or yet so

• Coordination
COORDINATION is the process of combining ideas. Two constituents of the same type
can be put together to produce another larger constituent of the same type.
Traditional grammar calls this process COMPOUNDING.
Compound sentence: The boy sang and the girls danced last night.
Compound subject: The teacher and her students will join the parade.
Compound verb: The children play and eat during recess.
Compound object: We boiled corn and cassava.
Use of Coordinating Conjunctions
Below is a straightforward account of the simple conjunctions:

Conjuctio Meaning Conjuction Meaning

n
for because or One or the other of two
alternatives is true
and Plus yet But at the same time
nor Conjoins two negative so Therefore
sentences, both of
which are true
but Shows contrast
• Subordination
SUBORDINATION means putting less important ideas in less important grammatical structures
like dependent clauses. One means of subordinate is SENTENCE COMBINING or REDUCING.

• Sentence combining
Mellisa topped the test.
Mellisa was late by twenty minutes.

Although late by twenty minutes, Melissa topped the test.

dependent clause independent clause

• Reducing
Although late, Mellisa topped the test
dependent clause independent clause
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions do the job of connecting dependent clauses to
independent clauses. Shown below are different types.
Type Conjunction Type Conjuction

time when, before, after, conditional if, unless

since, while, until, as
purpose in order to, so that reason because, since, as
result so that concessive although, though, while,
despite
place where, wherever manner as, like
 PREPOSITION
• Selected Meanings and Uses of Common Prepositions
at(exact ) we left at 2:00 pm.
about(approximate) we left about 2:00 pm.
against (contact) to lean against the wall
around(approximate) around 2:00
by (nearness) bed by the window
(no later than) by 2:00
from (source) paper is made from wood
of (before) a quarter of ten
on (contact) on the wall
(day, date) on Sunday, on November 8th
(communication) on radio, TV
(concerning) a round-table discussion on language policy
over (spanning time) over the weekend
( communication) over the radio, TV
through (penetrate) through the forest
(endurance) through thick and thin
to (until) work from 8 to 5
( before) a quarter to 11:00
(degree) He is honest to such extent.
under (less than) in under an hour
(condition) under stress
with (together) He grew smarter with the years.
(equal standing or ability) rank with the best
(manner) delivered his speech with ease
• Variations in Use of Prepositions
1. spatial proximity a house near/by the lake
2. time/degree approximation cost about/aroundPhp 1, 500.00
3. telling time a quarter of /to ten
a quarter after/past ten
4. location along something linear the houses on/along the river
5. in time period it occurred in/during 1901
6. temporal termination studied from 8 until/til/to 5
7. location lower than something below/beneath/under/underneath the
bed
8. location higher than something above/over the piano
9. location in/at the rear of something behind/in back of the cabinet
10. location adjacent next to/ beside the cave
 SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT
1. Collective nouns may take either a singular or plural verb inflection
depending on the meaning.
• Concieved of as one entity – takes a singular verb
Our school team has won its games.
• Conceived of as more than one entity or refers to individual membership
– takes plural verb
Our school team have won all their games.
2. Some common and proper nouns ending in –s, including –ics nouns and
certain diseases are always conceived as single entity- take a plural verb.
The recent news is exciting .
The United States is still a powerful country.
3. Titles of works even when plural in form are conceived of a single entitles.
The Ten Commandments is a beautiful movie.
The Syntax Files is good reading for those in linguistics.
4. Nouns occurring in sets of two take the singular when the noun pair is present but
take the plural when pair is absent.
That pair of Lee jeans is expensive.
My glasses are missing.
5. Fractions and percentages takes a singular verb inflection when modifying a non-
count and a plural verb when they modify a plural noun. Either a singular or plural
verb inflection may be used when they modify a collective noun, depending on the
speaker’s meaning.
More than half of the cake is eaten.
Twenty percent of the students are not joining the field trip.
One-fourth of the audience is/are teachers.
6. A number normally takes the plural. The number takes the singular.
A number of parents are coming for the meeting.
The number of signatories is substantial to merit approval of the motion.
7. When we use a number and a plural noun to talk about two or more things, we usually
use a plural verb. We use a singular verb with ‘one’.
Seven days make up a week.
One solid evidence is enough to prove his dishonesty.
8. When we are talking about an amount of money or time, or a distance, speed, or
weight, we usually use a number, a plural noun, and a singular verb.
Five hundred dollars is a lot of money.
Three years is a long time to wait for a family member from abroad to
come home.
Eighty kilometers per hour of travel is quite risky on slippery roads.
Seventy-five pounds is all she weighs now.
9. Arithmetic operations take the singular because they are perceived as reflecting a
single numerical entity on both sides of the equation or equal sign.
Two plus two is equals four.
10. The quantifiers a lot (of), lots of, and plenty of take a singular verb if the subject
noun is non-count by plural verb if the subject head noun is plural.
A lot of sound views were advanced during the discussion.
A lot of nonsense is evident from uninterested participants.
11. Traditional grammar states that when used as a subject, none (meaning not one) is
always singular regardless of what follows in a prepositional phrase.
None of the boys joins the mountaineering group.
None of the rice is eaten at all.
12. Traditional grammar maintains that the antecedent of the relative pronoun is the
noun before.
Alice is one of the graduate students who have finished her master’s degree in a
short period of time.
13. For collectives either…or neither…nor, traditional grammar argues for a
proximity rule, i.e., subject-verb agreement should occur with the subject
noun nearest to the verb.
Either my friend or my classmates are expected to help me with my
project.
Neither my classmates nor my friend volunteers to lend support.
14. A singular noun or pronoun should take a singular verb inflection
regardless of what else occurs between the subject and the verb.
Jimmy along with his co-teachers, conducts a cleanliness campaign in
the barangay.
15. In questions, subjects don’t always come before verbs. Identify accurately
the subject before deciding on the proper verb to use.
Does your father usually go jogging?
What are the pages our teacher wants us to read?
 VOICE
• Collective nouns may take either a singular or plural verb inflection
depending VOICE
• VOICE pertains to who or what serves as the subject in a clause. In the
ACTIVE VOICE, the subject of a clause is most often the agent, or doer,
of some action. In the PASSIVE VOICE, the subject of a clause is the
receiver or undergoer of the action. The passive “defocuses” the agent.
(Shibitani 1985 in Celce- Murcia and Larsen –Freeman 2001)
The lifeguard saved the child. (active)
The child was saved [by the lifeguard]. (passive)
• Advantages of the Active Voice
An active clause can give more information in fewer words.
An active verb makes writing livelier and more vivid.
• Uses of the Passive Voice
• A passive construction emphasizes the result in an impersonal style. This use
is sometimes desirable in scientific and technical writing.
A new strain of malaria was discovered.
• A passive verb emphasizes a victim or the result of a disaster.
Active: The child broke the antique vase.
Passive: The antique base was broken.
• Use the passive when the agent or the actor is so unimportant or is obvious
that you do not need to mention it.
Rica was born in Philippines
• Use a passive verb if you want to hide the name of the person who is
responsible for an unpleasant decision or result.
An increase in tuition fess was proposed.
• Forms of the English Passive
• We usually form simple passives like these:
Paper is produced from trees. (simple present)
Paper was produced from trees. ( simple past)
• Here are other possible forms:
With modals: Paper can be produced from trees.
With present perfect: Paper has been produced from trees.
With present progressive: Paper is being produced from trees.
With past progressive: Paper were being produced from trees.
With the going to for future: Paper is going to be produced from
trees.
 NEGATION

• “the action or logical operation of negating or making negative”.

• In simpler terms, negation defines the polar opposition of affirmative,
denies the existence or vaguely – a refutation. This is also known as
“Not”. Classical logic resembles negation with truth function which takes
truth to falsity and is perfectly capable of running the opposite operation.
It denies the truth of a sentence. It’s just the conversion of the affirmative
sentence which converts the simple affirmative sentence into negative.
• Rules of Negation:
• By changing the auxiliary verb of the sentence into negative, we can apply
Negation in a sentence.

Negation in tense
1. Present Indefinite Tense Do = do not/ don’t, does = does not/doesn’t.
2. Present Continuous Tense Am = am not, is = is not/isn’t, are = are not,
aren’t.
3. Present Perfect Tense Have = have not/haven’t, has = has not/hasn’t
4. Present Perfect Continuous tense Has been = has not been, have been =
have not been
5. Past Indefinite tense Did = did not/didn’t
6. Past Continuous tense Was = was not/wasn’t, were = were not/ weren’t
7. Past Perfect Tense Had = had not/hadn’t
8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense Had been = had not been/hadn’t been
9. Future Indefinite Tense Shall = shall not, will = will not/won’t
10. Future Continuous tense Shall be = shall not be, will be = will
not/won’t
11. Future Perfect Tense Shall have = shall not have, will have = will not
have/won’t have
12. Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Shall have been = shall not have
been, will have been = will not have been/won’t have been
Negation in Modal-auxiliary
Modal Modal in negative Modal Modal in negative
1. Can Can not/ can’t Shall Shall not
2. Could Could not/ couldn’t Should Should not/shouldn’t
3. May May not Will Will not/won’t
4. Might Might not/mightn’t would Would not/wouldn’t
5. Must Must not/mustn’t Ought to Ought not to
6. Need Need not/needn’t
Negation in Words
• Some words such as ever, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere, instead
of never, nobody, no one, nothing, nowhere, etc. represent the Negation.
I do not think he can ever reach within time.
• Double Negative
• Double negative on the other hand, simply defines the existence of two
forms of negation in the same sentence. Please, notice that a double
negative can often result in an affirmation in the English language (e.g., He
hardly stops for small-talks). The rhetorical term for such a phenomenon
is ‘litotes’.
I can not find him nowhere.
 INTERROGATIVES

• Yes/no questions
• Questions that expect the answer yes or no are called yes/no
questions or sometimes, polar questions.
• The interrogative is used to form yes/no questions.
• The normal sentence order for the interrogative is:
modal/auxiliary verb + subject + base form of the main verb.
Were the dogs barking?
Have you been dieting?
Can Mahmoud come too?
• When a sentence does not contain a modal verb or an auxiliary verb, the
question is formed by placing a form of the supporting auxiliary verb do
before the subject and following it with the base form of the main verb.
Does he enjoy tennis?
Do they play a lot?
Did that surprise his mum?
• Yes/no questions also have a negative form. Negative yes/no questions
are almost always contracted. The negative in its contracted form n’t
comes immediately before the subject.
Doesn’t he like talking about his childhood?
• If the full negative form not is used, it comes immediately after the
subject. The full form is very formal.
Does he not like talking about his childhood?
• Yes/no:
Did you ring the school? – Yes, I did.
Was she all right in the end? – No/I don’t know.
Have you seen Ali yet? – Yes, I have.
• WH-:
Who was that man? – He’s my geography teacher.
What did he say when you told him the news? – He was too
surprised to say anything.
When did you see Ali? – Last Wednesday.
Where is Peter going? – To work.
When did they arrive? – Yesterday.
Why have you stopped going running? – The doctor told me to.
• Sentence tags
• The tag is added to the end of a statement. If the auxiliary verb be or
have or a modal verb is part of the verb phrase in the sentence, then it
is used as the verb in the sentence tag.
It isn’t raining again, is it?
You’ve seen the programme, haven’t you?
Well, we can’t jump over it, can we?
You will come, won’t you?
 EMBEDDING
In generative grammar, embedding is the process by which one clause
is included (embedded) in another. This is also known as nesting. More
broadly, embedding refers to the inclusion of any linguistic unit as part
of another unit of the same general type. Another major type of
embedding in English grammar is subordination.
Wanda said that Lydia sang.
Arthur wants Amanda to vote.
• The following examples illustrate three types of embedded clauses. Note
that the embedded clauses are in boldface and that each matrix clause
is also a main clause. You'll also see that the embedded clauses are
marked in some way. For example, by the initial who, that, or when:

Relative clause: The boy who came is his cousin. (who came)
Noun clause: I told him that I would go. (that I would go
Adverb clause: He left when the bell rang. (when the bell rang)