CSC 222: DIGITAL

COMMUNICATION
Dr Adeniji Oluwashola David
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE,
UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN
Lecture 9
 NETWORK EVOLUTION
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. A node can be a computer,
printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network.
Software modules in one system are used to communicate with
one or more software modules in the distance System.
Such interfaces across a distance are termed as “peer-to-peer”
interfaces; and the local interfaces are termed as “service”
interfaces.
The modules on each end are organized as a sequence of
functions called “layers”. The set of modules organized as layers
is also commonly called a “protocol stack”
The ISO Open Systems Interconnection (ISO/OSI) layered model
has seven layers and was developed by a set of committees under
Classification of Computer
• 1.BasedNetworks
on Transmission Mode
• Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow
between two linked devices. There are three types of
transmission modes.
• Simplex In simplex mode, the communication is
unidirectional. Among the stations only one can transmit
and the other can only receive.
• Half-Duplex In half-Duplex mode, the communication is
bidirectional. In this both station can sent and receive but
not at the same time.
• Full-Duplex In Full-Duplex mode, both stations can
transmit and receive simultaneously.
 2. Based on Time in
Transmission Type
 Synchronous Transmission In synchronous Transmission
both the sender and the receiver use the same time cycle
forthe transmission. We send bits one after another
without start/stop bits or gaps.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits. Bit
stream is delivered with a fixed delay and given error rate.
Each bit reaches the destination with the same time delay
after leaving the source. •
 Asynchronous Transmission In Asynchronous
Transmission we send one start bit at the beginning and
one stop bit at the end of each byte. There may be a gap
between each byte. Bit stream is divided into packets.
 3. Based on Authentication
• Peer to Peer Connection In peer-to-peer networks, there
are no dedicated servers. All the computers are equal and,
therefore, are termed as peers. Normally, each computer
functions as both a client and a server. No one can control
the other computers.
• Server Based Connection Most networks have a dedicated
server. A dedicated server is a computer on a network
which functions as a server, and cannot be used as a client
or a workstation. A dedicated server is optimized to
service requests from network clients. A server can
control the clients for its services.
 4. Based on Geographical
location
• • Local Area Networks (LAN) LAN is a small high speed
network. In LAN few numbers of systems are
interconnected with networking device to create network.
As the distance increases between the nodes or system it
speed decreases. So it is limed to few meters only.
Networks which cover close geographical area. LAN used
to link the devices in a single office, building or campus. It
provides high speeds over short distance. Systems are
connecting directly to Network. The LAN is owned by
private people.

• • Wide Area Network (WAN) WAN is collection of network

(or LAN). This network speed is less than the LAN
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) Metropolitan area
network is an extension of local area network to spread
over the city. Itmay be a single network or a network in
which more than one local area network canshare their
resources.
 Based on Reliability
Reliability is maintained by
authentication.
 Connection-oriented: This type of communication
establishes a session connection before data can be sent.
This method is often called a "reliable" network service. It
can guarantee that data will arrive in the same order.
 Connection less This type of communication does not
require a session connection between sender and receiver
for data transfer. The sender simply starts sending
packets to the destination. A connectionless network
provides minimal services.
• Topology Topology refers to physical layout including
computers, cables, and other resources; it determines how
components communicate with each other. Today’s
network designs are based on three topologies:
• • Bus consists of series of computers connected along a
single cable segment • Star connects computers via
central connection point or hub
• • Ring connects computers to form a loop All computers,
regardless of topology, communicate by addressing data to
one or more computers and transmitting it across cable as
electronic signals.
• Data is broken into packets and sent as electronic signals
that travel on the cable. Only the computer to which the
data is addressed accepts it.
• Protocol Protocols mean set of rules.
• It is a formal description of message formats and the rules
two or more machines has follow to exchange messages.
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and
timing.
• • Syntax Syntax refers to the structure or format of the
data, meaning the order in which they are
• presented.
• • Semantics Semantics refers to the meaning of each
section of bits.
• • Timing Timing refers to when data should be sent and
how fast it can be sent.
 OSI model
• OSI (Open System Interconnection), developed by the
International Organizationfor Standardization (ISO), was
the solution designed to promote interoperabilitybetween
vendors.
• It defines architecture for communications that support
distributed processing.
• The OSI model describes the functions that allow
systemsto communicate successfully over a network.
• Using what is called a layeredapproach, communications
functions are broken down into seven distinct layers.
FIG 2: Interaction between
layers in OSI model
• The seven layers, beginning with the bottom layer of the
OSI model, are shown in figure 2.
• Routers are used as intermediate node to create a link
between A and B end system. OSI model layers are
dependent on each other.
• Each layer serves the upper layer and also depends upon
the services from the lower layer. OSI model also provide
the layer abstraction.
• Layers are dependent on each other for services but in
terms of protocol they are independent.
 OSI Model Layer Layer 1:

• Physical Layer
• ▪ It defines the transmission of data across the
communications medium and translation of binary data
into signals.
• ▪ Mode of transmission over the link i.e Simplex or Half
Duplex or Full Duplex
• ▪ It defines the transmission rate of bits per second.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
• ▪ It divides the data into number of frames.
• ▪ It uses the MAC address for sending frames from one
node to other.
• ▪ It provides flow control, error control and access
control.
 Layer 3: Network Layer
• ▪ It divides data into number of packets.
• ▪ It uses IP address for routing packets to their
destination.
• ▪ It provides end to end connection
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
• ▪ It divides message into segments and also reassemble
the segments to create original message.
• ▪ It can be either connection-oriented or connectionless.
• ▪ It uses service-point address or port address for
process to process communication.
• ▪ Flow control and error control also provided by
transport layer.
 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
• ▪ It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
informationexchangedbetweentwo systems.
• ▪ It translates information from text/numeric into bit
stream.
• ▪ It also encrypts the information for security purpose and
compress the information to reduce the number of bits in
the information.
• Layer 7: Application Layer
• ▪ It provides the interface to the end user and supports
for services such as Email, file transfer and distributed
information service.
• TCP/IP model • TCP/IP protocol suite was developed
before the OSI model. •
• TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating
computers to share resources across a network.
• • In 1969 the Defense Advanced research projects Agency
(DARPA) funded a research and development project to
create an experimental packet switching network. This
network is called ARPANET.
• • In 1975 the ARPANET was converted from an
experimental network to an operational network, and the
responsibility for administering the network was given to
the Defense Communication Agency (DCA).
• • The TCP/IP protocols were adopted as Military
Standards (MIL STD) in 1983, and all hosts connected to
the network were required to convert to the new
protocols.
• • DARPA funded to implement TCP/IP in BerkelyUnix.
• • In 1983, the old ARPANET was divided into MILNET and
smaller ARPANET. The Internet was used to refer to the
entire network; MILNET and ARPANET.
• Advantages of TCP/IP Open protocol standards, freely
available and developed independently from any specific
computer hardware or operating system. A common
addressing scheme which is enable to connect the most
widely used networks. It may use any protocols. It
connects dissimilar systems. It provides client/server
framework. It provides access to the Internet
 Differences of the OSI and
TCP/IP models
• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer into
its application layer. TCP/IPcombines the OSI data link
and physical layers into one layer. TCP/IP appears simpler
because it has fewer layers. TCP/IP transport layer using
UDP does not always guarantee reliable delivery of
packets as the transport layer in the OSI model does.