GE: PSYCHOLOGY AT

WORKPLACE
UNIT 4
LEADERSHIP- DEFINITION AND FUNCTIONS)
 INTRODUCTION
• Some form of leadership exists in all groups. The central
attribute of leadership is social influence (Burn, 2004; Chemers,
2001). The leader is the person who has the most impact on
group behavior and beliefs, who initiates action, gives orders,
makes decisions, settles disputes among group members,
offers encouragement, serves as a model, and is in the
forefront of group activity.

• A person in an organization may assume leadership both in a

formal and informal way. By formal leadership we mean to
say that a person assumes leadership role, based on the
position that he holds in an organization and in such form of
leadership, the leader is designated with the title, along with
the authority and responsibility to lead the team.
• In the second form of leadership, a person assumes
leadership without any formal sanction of authority and
duty. That is, in informal leadership, the ability to
influence the group arises outside the formal structure of
the organization and people in the organization oblige to
such influence even without the formal influence.
• Leadership is quite important for an organization and
they act as agents who cope with change and bring
about change for the betterment of the organization.
• Leaders establish direction by developing a vision of
future for the organization, communicate the vision to
the people in the organization and synchronize them with
the organizational vision and mission, thereby inspire the
people to translate the goals, vision and mission into
reality.
• Thus, leadership is the ultimate act that brings to success
all of the potent potential, that is in an organization and
its people.
 DEFINITION

• Leadership is defined as the ability to influence a group

towards the achievement of a vision or set of goals.
• Keith Davis observes that, “without leadership, an
organization is but a muddle of men and machine.
• Leadership transforms potential into reality. It is the
ultimate act which brings to success all the potential that is
in an organization and its people”.
• In 1938, Chester Bernard gave a new definition of
leadership and stated that, “leadership is the ability of a
superior to influence the behaviour of subordinates and
persuade them to follow a particular course of action”.
• A recent theorist on leadership, Williams (2005), states
that, “leadership is an interactive art in which the leader is
dancing with the context, the problem, the faction, and the
objective”
• Many studies have found a strong tendency for the person who
talks the most to be perceived as the leader both by other
members of the group and by outside observers (Mullen, 1991).
Specific leadership activities also make a difference.
• For instance, a study asked groups of grade-school children to
decide which of eight pictures was most suitable for displaying in
children's hospital rooms (French & Stright, 1991). Those children
who frequently asked others their opinions, who kept the group
focused on the task, and who made records of group decisions
were perceived as leaders by group members, by teachers, and
by other observers.
• Another path to leadership arises when an individual turns a
personal tragedy into a social cause (Huffington, 2001).
When her daughter was killed by a drink person's functioning as a
social leader.
• A third factor is motivation. Leaders usually desire recognition
and prominence (e.g., Whitney, Sagrestano, & Maslach, 1992).
Leaders are more ambitious, achievement oriented, and willing to
assume responsibility. It is important to note, however, that
although these qualities enhance a person's leadership potential,
they do not guarantee an actual position of leadership.
• Finally, leaders tend to be confident in their own abilities and
are optimistic about the success of group efforts (Chemers,
Watson, & May, 2000). Another approach to leadership
emphasizes situational factors. During World War II, U.S. Navy
admiral William ("Bull") Halsey was quoted as saying, "There
are no great men. There are only great challenges which
ordinary men are forced by circumstance to meet" (Boal &
Bryson, 1988, p. 11). Times of crisis that threaten the goals of
a group can set the stage for the emergence of a new leader
(Pillai, 1996).

• Today, most researchers believe that becoming a leader

depends in large part on the match between the
characteristics of the person and the needs of the situation
confronting the group. It should be obvious that different
situations require different qualities in a leader. Being a star
pitcher may be a real asset in becoming captain of the
intramural softball team, but it would not contribute much to
heading the debate team.
 FUNCTIONS OF LEADERSHIP

• The leaders are required to carry out number of job

duties and responsibilities. In acquiring an efficient
understanding of the process of leadership, one
needs to understand the functions of leadership.
• The capabilities and aptitude, which are required to
put into operation the functions are dependent upon
the nature of the groups.
• The position of the leaders may undergo changes
within the period of time. It is necessary to list a
range of general functions, which are served by the
leaders, particularly when one is conducting
research on the concept of leadership. The functions
of leadership are stated in the following section.
 Leader is the Representative of the Subordinates

• Within the hierarchy of the organization, the individuals are assigned

different job positions in accordance to their educational
qualifications, work experience, skills, abilities and personality traits.
• The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) is at the topmost position. The
other members of the organization include, general managers,
managers, trainers, supervisors, workforce, and other staff members.
The individuals are assigned different job duties within the
organizations, i.e. clerical, managerial, administrative, technical and
so forth.
• The members have supervisors or heads, whom they have to report
to in terms of their job duties. The supervisors are the
representatives of their subordinates.
• When the subordinates experience any problems and challenges,
they convey them to their supervisors and they in turn put them
forward to the CEO, directors or heads.
• Therefore, it is well-understood that leader is regarded as the
representative of the subordinates and forms a connection between
the subordinates and the CEO or directors or heads of the
organizations.
 Leader is an Appropriate Counsellor
• Within the course of implementation of their job duties, the
individuals are required to experience number of problems and
challenges. These may take place on a frequent basis or seldom.
• They usually give rise to barriers within the course of
implementation of their job duties in an effectual manner. The
employees approach their leaders, when the problems are severe
and they are unable to provide solutions to them on their own.
• In such cases, the leaders need to carry out the roles of the
counsellors. In the implementation of the roles of appropriate
counsellors, they need to be well-aware in terms of measures and
approaches and communicate them to the employees in an
appropriate manner.
• Therefore, when the leaders carry out the job duties of the
counsellors in an appropriate manner, they are able to render a
significant contribution in helping the employees to overcome the
barriers and carry out their job duties in a satisfactory manner.
 Manages Time and Resources in an Effective Manner
• The leaders need to manage the time and resources in an
effective manner. This function of the leader is regarded to be
of utmost significance in putting into operation the job duties in
a satisfactory manner and achieving the desired goals and
objectives.
• The members of the organization at all levels need resources to
carry out their job duties. It is the job duty of the leaders to
guide them to utilize the resources suitably. These are,
materials, technologies, tools, machinery, equipment and
finances.
• In the implementation of job duties in an efficacious manner,
the members of the organization need time. Hence, the leaders
need to ensure, they are given sufficient time. All the members
need to be well-aware of the fact that time and resources are to
be made use of in an efficacious manner and wastage should
be prevented.
• Therefore, it can be stated, managing time and resources in an
effective manner is an essential function of leadership.
 Makes the Working Environment Conducive to Work
• The working environmental conditions need to be conducive to
work. The leaders need to take into account various factors to
make the working environment conducive to work.
• These are, ensuring there are appropriate infrastructure,
amenities, facilities, resources, tools, materials, technologies and
equipment, the individuals communicate with each other in an
efficacious manner, there is development of mutual understanding
among members, ensuring the existence of proper grievance
redresser procedures, ensuring the individuals are well-equipped
in terms of job duties, equal rights are provided to all, there is not
any discrimination on the basis of factors, such as, caste, creed,
race, religion, ethnicity, gender, age, educational qualifications,
personality traits and socio-economic background, proper rules
and laws are formulated, the members need to possess an
approachable nature and an amiable attitude and one should not
be pressurized or overloaded with work.
• Therefore, when the leaders will implement these factors, they will
contribute effectively in making the working environment
conducive to work.
 Makes Provision of Security to Others
• Within the working environment, the members will be able to carry
out their job duties well, when they feel safe.
• The members need to feel safe physically as well as psychologically.
It is the job duty of the leaders to create a safe working environment.
• In hazardous occupations, such as, lock industries, plantations, silk
weaving, gem cutting and so forth, the leaders ensure that
employees take precautions to carry out their job duties safely and
prevent accidents.
• When the individuals are required to work with machines and tools,
the supervisors need to supervise them and ensure they are
performing their job duties well.
• In addition, it needs to be ensured, the machines and tools are also in
a safe condition. They need to ensure that communication takes
place among the members in a decent and respectful manner, so
they feel safe psychologically.
• Therefore, it can be stated, making provision of security to others is a
vital function of leadership.
 Develops the Attitude of Co-operation among Workforce
• It is comprehensively understood that the individuals cannot carry
out their job duties in seclusion. They need to work in co-operation
with others.
• The leaders normally convey the viewpoint to the employees that
they need to communicate with others well and work in co-operation
with each other. Working in co-operation will prove to be beneficial
to them to a major extent.
• The individuals will be able to exchange viewpoints and
perspectives, obtain help from others in providing solutions to
problems, work in collaboration and integration with each other,
incur the feeling of job satisfaction and they do not have to consult
their supervisors in terms of trivial issues.
• When any types of difficulties and setbacks can be overcome
through development of the attitude of co-operation among
workforce, they will not have to approach the leaders.
• Therefore, it is well-understood, the leaders put emphasis upon the
development of the attitude of co-operation among workforce in all
types of organizations.
 Communicates Policies and Procedures to the Workforce
• When the workforce are recruited within the organizations and
among the present workforce as well, the leaders need to
communicate in terms of policies and procedures.
• The policies are in terms of the job duties, work timings and overall
working environmental conditions, whereas, procedures are related
to the ways in which job duties need to be carried out in accordance
to the expectations of the supervisors and employers.
• In some organizations, the policies and procedures are manageable
to understand, whereas, in others, the employees experience
problems in acquiring an efficient understanding in terms of them as
well as in putting them into operation in a useful manner.
• When the employees experience problems, it is the job duty of the
leaders to make provision of support and assistance to them in
acquiring an efficient understanding and putting them into operation.
• Therefore, it is well-understood, the leaders need to carry out the
function of communication of policies and procedures to the
workforce in all types of organizations.
 Guides and Directs the Overall Functioning of the
Organization
• This function is apparent and is comprehensively understood that
the leaders need to guide and direct the employees in the overall
functioning of the organization.
• The employees normally not just have one job duty, but number
of job duties to perform. Hence, in the satisfactory performance of
job duties, the leaders need to guide and direct them well.
• Furthermore, in leading to overall functioning of the organizations
as well, the leaders need to ensure, the human resources are
well-equipped in terms of knowledge, skills, and capabilities.
• When the employees experience setbacks within the course of
implementation of job duties in a useful manner, it is the job duty
of the leaders to make provision of solutions to their problems.
• When problems will be solved, when the individuals will develop
mutual understanding and work in collaboration and integration
with each other towards the achievement of desired goals and
objectives, they will promote overall functioning of the
organization in a satisfactory manner. Therefore, guiding and
directing the overall functioning of the organization is an
 Understands Problems and Feelings of Subordinates
• Within the working environment, the employees experience problems
and challenges in terms of number of factors. These include,
performance of job duties, dealing with changes, being well-equipped
in terms of modern, scientific and innovative methods, making use of
machines, tools, and technologies, coping with the needs and
demands of the customers, pay and reimbursements, experiencing
conflicting situations and disagreements, leaves, setbacks in acquiring
an understanding of the principles and procedures and overall working
environmental conditions.
• When the subordinates experience problems in terms of one or more
of these factors, they report them to their leaders. The leaders need to
understand them and deal with them in an effectual manner.
Furthermore, the subordinates need to be provided with the
opportunities to express their viewpoints and perspectives.
• The leaders need to possess an approachable nature, so the
subordinates feel comfortable in communicating with them. In
understanding the problems and feelings of the subordinates, the
leaders may even get engaged in informal conversations with them.
Therefore, understanding the problems and feelings of the
subordinates is regarded as a crucial function of leaders.
 Implement Measures to eliminate Barriers
• Different types of barriers do take place within the course of
implementation of job duties (Anshika, n.d.). These are related to
finances, resources, materials, tools, technologies, transportation,
lack of personnel and so forth.
• When these barriers take place, it is apparent that they would give
rise to setbacks within the course of implementation of tasks and
activities in a satisfactory manner. In such cases, the members would
approach their leaders to make provision of solutions to the problems.
• The crucial function of the leaders is to implement measures to
eliminate barriers. In some cases, these measures are difficult,
whereas, in other cases, they are manageable to put into operation.
• The leaders usually need to work in collaboration and integration with
the employees to eliminate the barriers. But when the participation of
the employees is not required, they may put them into operation
independently.
• This is usually, when machines need to be replaced by new ones.
Therefore, it is understood that implementing measures to eliminate
barriers is regarded as an indispensable function of leaders.
EARLY APPROACHES TO
LEADERSHIP
 1. TRAIT APPROACH

• One of the earliest theories of leadership.

• Formed the basis of most early leadership research.
• This approach focuses on the personal attributes
(or traits) of leaders, such as physical and personality
characteristics, competencies, and values.
• It views leadership solely from the perspective of the
individual leader.
• Assumes that traits produce patterns of behavior
that are consistent across situations. That is,
leadership traits are considered to be enduring
characteristics that people are born with and
that remain relatively stable over time.
 EARLY RESEARCH ON THE TRAIT
APPROACH
• Many early researchers viewed leadership as a
unidimensional personality trait that could be
reliably measured and was distributed normally
throughout the population (i.e., an individual
difference variable).
• Most of the early empirical work on the trait approach
focused on the systematic investigation of the
differences between leaders and followers. It
was reasonable to assume that individuals in higher-
level positions would possess more leadership traits
than those in lower-level positions. Concurrently, a
large number of studies were conducted in an
attempt to develop reliable and valid measures of
leadership traits.
• Researchers discovered, however, that only a few
traits appeared to distinguish between
leaders and followers. Leaders tended to be
slightly higher on traits such as height, intelligence,
extraversion, adjustment, dominance, and self-
confidence as compared with non-leaders.
• Many early trait researchers had assumed that, no
matter what the situation, there was a set of
characteristics that made a leader successful.
These researchers believed that the same
leadership traits would be effective, for
example, in both the boardroom and on the
battlefield. However, the differences between
leaders and followers were found to vary widely
across different situations—researchers had
underestimated the impact of situational variables
on leadership effectiveness.
 LEADERSHIP TRAITS

• Trait researchers often developed lists of

characteristics that they believed were related to
successful leadership. In creating such lists, some
researchers mixed together very different attributes.
• The lists, however, were not exhaustive and
typically omitted some important leadership
attributes.
• Many popular books on leadership continue the
tradition of providing lists of traits that are thought
to be central to effective leadership. The basic idea
remains that if an individual possesses such traits,
she or he will be a successful leader in any situation.
In 1989, John W. Gardner published a study of a large
number of leaders and concluded that there are some
attributes that appear to make a leader successful in any
situation. These traits included the following:
• Physical vitality and stamina
• Intelligence and action-oriented judgment
• Eagerness to accept responsibility
• Task competence
• Understanding of followers and their needs
• Skill in dealing with people
• Need for achievement
• Capacity to motivate people
• Courage and resolution
• Trustworthiness
• Decisiveness
• Self-confidence
• Assertiveness
• Adaptability/flexibility
• One of the concerns about such lists is that the
attributes typically associated with successful
leaders are often perceived as “male” traits.
Reportedly, when men and women are asked
about the other gender’s characteristics and
leadership qualities, significant patterns emerge,
with both men and women tending to see
successful leaders as male.
 PROBLEMS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE
TRAIT APPROACH
• Many early researchers found no differences between leaders and
followers with respect to their leadership characteristics—some
even found that individuals who possessed these traits were less
likely to become leaders.
• Researchers also found very small relationships between these
traits and leadership effectiveness. Because so few of the traits
clearly differentiated between effective and ineffective leaders,
their efficacy in selecting individuals for leadership positions was
severely limited.
• There were too many leadership variables with low reliabilities,
and no rationale for selecting specific variables to include in a
study. This approach has been called “dustbowl empiricism” at its
worst.
• Additionally, there has been little systematic research on the
processes by which individuals acquire the capacity for leadership.
If leadership is indeed an individual difference variable, then very
little is known about the origin of these differences.
 2. BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

• The results of the trait studies were inconclusive.

Traits, among other things, were hard to measure.
How, for example, do we measure traits such as
honesty, integrity, loyalty, or diligence? Another
approach in the study of leadership had to be
found. To measure traits, researchers had to rely
on constructs which lacked reliability and, given
differing definitions, also lacked validity. After the
problems with the trait approach became evident,
researchers turned to an examination of leader
behaviors.
• With behaviors, researchers could rely on
empirical evidence. Behaviors, contrary to traits,
could be observed. It was thus decided to
examine the behaviors of successful (again, by
whatever means success was measured) leaders.
• The initial phases of the behavioral research
seemed as frustrating as the trait approach -- the
number of behaviors identified was staggering.
• However, over time, it appeared that the key
behaviors could be grouped or categorized.
• The most prominent studies were those
undertaken by the University of Michigan and by
Ohio State University. Interestingly, both studies
arrived at similar conclusions. Both studies
concluded that leadership behaviors could be
classified into two groups.
 MICHIGAN STUDIES

The University of Michigan studies (Rensis Likert)

identified two styles of leader behavior:
1. Production centered behavior: when a leader
pays close attention to the work of sub- ordinates,
explains work procedures, and is keenly interested in
performance.
2. Employee centered behavior: when the leader is
interested in developing a cohesive work group and in
ensuring employees are satisfied with their jobs.

These two styles of leader behavior were believed to lie

at the ends of a single continuum. Likert found that
employee- centered leader behavior generally tended to
be more effective.
 OHIO STUDY

Researchers at Ohio State leadership found results which suggested

two basic leader behaviors or styles.
1. Initiating structure behavior: when the leader clearly
defines the leader subordinate, establishes formal lines of
communication, and determines how tasks are to be performed.
2. Consideration behavior: the leader shows concern for sub-
ordinates and attempts to establish a warm, friendly, and
supportive climate.
Unlike the Michigan Studies, these two behaviors were not viewed
as opposite ends of a continuum, but as independent variables.
Thus the leader can exhibit varying degrees of both initiating
structure and consideration at the same time.
Rather than concentrating on what leaders are, as the trait
approach did, the behavioral approach forced looking at what
leaders do. The main shortcomings of the behavioral approach was
its focus on finding a dependable prescription for effective
leadership.