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Module Four

Integumentary System

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Integumentary System 1

The integumentary system consists of the skin

and accessory structures, such as hair, glands,
and nails.
Integument means covering.
The appearance of the integumentary system
can indicate physiological imbalances in the
body.

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Integumentary System 2

Figure 5.1
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Integumentary System Functions 1

1. Protection. The skin provides protection

against abrasion and ultraviolet light.
2. Sensation. The integumentary system has
sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold,
touch, pressure, and pain.
3. Vitamin D production. When exposed to
ultraviolet light, the skin produces a molecule
that can be transformed into vitamin D.

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Integumentary System Functions 2

4. Temperature regulation. The amount of

blood flow beneath the skin’s surface and the
activity of sweat glands in the skin both help
regulate body temperature.
5. Excretion. Small amounts of waste products
are lost through the skin and in gland
secretions.

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Skin
The skin is made up of two major tissue
layers: the epidermis and the dermis.
The epidermis is the most superficial layer
of skin. It is a layer of epithelial tissue that
rests on the dermis.
The dermis is a layer of dense connective
tissue.
The skin rests on the subcutaneous tissue,
which is a layer of connective tissue.
The subcutaneous tissue is not part of
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Epidermis and Dermis

Figure 5.2
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Epidermis 1

The epidermis prevents

water loss and resists
abrasion.

The epidermis, known as

the cutaneous
membrane, is a
keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium.

The epidermis is
composed of distinct
layers called strata.

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Epidermis 2

The stratum corneum, the

most superficial stratum of
the epidermis, consists of
dead squamous cells filled
with keratin.

Keratin gives the stratum

corneum its structural
strength.

Cells of the deepest strata

perform mitosis.

As new cells form, they

push older cells to the
surface, where they slough,
or flake off.
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Epidermis 3

Excessive sloughing of
stratum corneum cells from
the surface of the scalp is
called dandruff.
In skin subjected to friction,
the number of layers in the
stratum corneum greatly
increases, producing a
thickened area called a
callus.
Over a bony prominence,
the stratum corneum can
thicken to form a cone-
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Dermis 1

The dermis is composed of dense

collagenous connective tissue
containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, and
macrophages.
Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles,
glands, and lymphatic vessels extend
into the dermis.
Collagen fibers, oriented in many
directions, and elastic fibers are
responsible for the structural strength
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Dermis 2

Some collagen fibers are

oriented more directions
than others, forming
cleavage lines.

Cleavage lines, or tension

lines, in the skin, are more
resistant to stretch.

An incision made parallel

with these lines tends to
gap less and produce less
scar tissue.

If the skin is overstretched

for any reason, the dermis
can be damaged, leaving
stretch marks.
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Dermis 3

Dermal papillae are projections

toward the epidermis found in the
upper part of the dermis.

The dermal papillae contain many

blood vessels.

The dermal papillae in the palms

of the hands, the soles of the
feet, and the tips of the digits are
arranged in parallel, curving
ridges that shape the overlying
epidermis into fingerprints and
footprints.

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Skin Color 1

Factors that determine skin

color include pigments in the
skin, blood circulating through
the skin, and the thickness of
the stratum corneum.

The two primary pigments are

melanin and carotene.

Melanin is the group of

pigments primarily responsible
for skin, hair, and eye color.

Carotene is a yellow pigment

found in plants such as squash
and carrots.

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Skin Color 2

Most melanin molecules are brown to black

pigments, but some are yellowish or reddish.
Melanin provides protection against ultraviolet
light from the sun.

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Skin Color 2

Melanin is produced by melanocytes and the melanin is

packaged into vesicles called melanosomes, which move into
the cell processes of melanocytes.
Epithelial cells phagocytize the tips of the melanocyte cell
processes, thereby acquiring melanosomes.

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Skin Color 3

Large amounts of melanin

form freckles or moles in
some regions of the skin.
Melanin production is
determined by genetic
factors, exposure to light, and
hormones.
Genetic factors are
responsible for the amounts
of melanin produced in
different races.
Since all races have about the
same number of
melanocytes, racial variations
in skin color are determined
by the amount, kind, and
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Skin Color 4

Exposure to ultraviolet
light—for example, in
sunlight— stimulates
melanocytes to
increase melanin
production. The result
is a suntan.
Although many genes
are responsible for
skin color, a single
mutation can prevent
the production of
melanin and cause
albinism.
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Skin Color 5

Carotene is lipid-soluble; when consumed, it accumulates in

the lipids of the stratum corneum and in the adipocytes of
the dermis and subcutaneous tissue.

If large amounts of carotene are consumed, the skin can

become quite yellowish.

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Skin Color 6

The color of blood in the

dermis contributes to
skin color.
A decrease in blood flow,
as occurs in shock, can
make the skin appear
pale.
A decrease in the blood
O2 content produces a
bluish color of the skin,
called cyanosis.

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Subcutaneous Tissue 1

The skin (cutaneous

membrane) rests on the
subcutaneous tissue.

The subcutaneous tissue,

which is not part of the
skin, is sometimes called
hypodermis.

The subcutaneous tissue

attaches the skin to
underlying bone and
muscle and supplies it with
blood vessels and nerves.

It is loose connective
tissue, including adipose
tissue that contains about
half the body’s stored
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Subcutaneous Tissue 2

The amount and location of adipose tissue

vary with age, sex, and diet.
Adipose tissue in the subcutaneous tissue
functions as padding and insulation.
The subcutaneous tissue can be used to
estimate total body fat.
The acceptable percentage of body fat varies
from 21% to 30% for females and from 13%
to 25% for males.

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Hair 1

In humans, hair is found everywhere on the

skin, except on the palms, soles, lips,
nipples, parts of the genitalia, and the distal
segments of the fingers and toes.
Each hair arises from a hair follicle, an
invagination of the epidermis that extends
deep into the dermis.
A hair shaft protrudes above the surface of
the skin; the root is below the surface and
the hair bulb is the expanded base of the
root.
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Hair 2

A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds a

softer center, the medulla.
The cortex is covered by the cuticle, a single
layer of overlapping cells that holds the hair
in the hair follicle.
Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which rests
on the hair papilla.
The hair papilla is an extension of the
dermis that protrudes into the hair bulb and
contains blood vessels.

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Hair 3

Hair is produced in cycles, with a growth

stage and resting stage.
During the growth stage, hair is formed by
mitosis of epithelial cells within the hair bulb;
these cells divide and undergo keratinization.
During the resting stage, growth stops and
the hair is held in the hair follicle.
When the next growth stage begins, a new
hair is formed and the old hair falls out.

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Hair 4

The duration of each stage depends on the

individual hair.
Eyelashes grow for about 30 days and rest
for 105 days, whereas scalp hairs grow for 3
years and rest for 1 to 2 years.
The loss of hair normally means that the hair
is being replaced because the old hair falls
out of the hair follicle when the new hair
begins to grow.

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Hair 5

Hair color is determined by varying amounts

and types of melanin.
With age, the amount of melanin in hair can
decrease, causing the hair color to become
faded, or the hair can contain no melanin and
be white.
Each hair follicle is attached to smooth
muscle cells called the arrector pili muscle,
which can contract and cause the hair to
become perpendicular to the skin’s surface.

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Hair Follicle

Figure 5.5
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Glands 1

The major glands of the skin are the

sebaceous glands and the sweat glands.
Sebaceous glands are simple, branched
acinar glands, with most being connected by
a duct to the superficial part of a hair follicle.
They produce sebum, an oily, white
substance rich in lipids.
The sebum is released by holocrine secretion
and lubricates the hair and the surface of the
skin, which prevents drying and protects
against some bacteria.
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Glands 2

There are two kinds of sweat glands: eccrine

and apocrine.
Eccrine sweat glands are simple, coiled,
tubular glands and release sweat by
merocrine secretion.
Eccrine glands are located in almost every
part of the skin but most numerous in the
palms and soles.
They produce a secretion that is mostly water
with a few salts.
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Glands 3

Eccrine sweat glands have ducts that

open onto the surface of the skin
through sweat pores and are for
thermal regulation.
Sweat can also be released in the
palms, soles, armpits, and other places
because of emotional stress.

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Glands 4

Apocrine sweat glands are simple, coiled,

tubular glands that produce a thick secretion
rich in organic substances.
The glands open into hair follicles in the
armpits and genitalia.
Apocrine sweat glands become active at
puberty because of the influence of sex
hormones.
The secretion generally is odorless, but when
released quickly breaks down by bacterial
action giving body odor.
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Glands of the Skin

Figure 5.6
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Nails 1

The nail is a thin plate, consisting of layers of

dead stratum corneum cells that contain a very
hard type of keratin.
The visible part of the nail is the nail body, and
the part of the nail covered by skin is the nail
root.
The cuticle, or eponychium, is stratum corneum
that extends onto the nail body and the nail root
extends distally from the nail matrix.
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Nails 2

The nail also attaches to the underlying nail bed,

which is located distal to the nail matrix.
The nail matrix and bed are epithelial tissue with a
stratum basale that gives rise to the cells that form
the nail.
A small part of the nail matrix, the lunula, can be
seen through the nail body as a whitish, crescent-
shaped area at the base of the nail.
Cell production within the nail matrix causes the nail
to grow continuously.
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Nail

Figure 5.7
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Integumentary System Protection 1

The integumentary system performs many

protective functions:
1. Reduction in body water loss
2. Acts as a barrier that prevents microorganisms
and other foreign substances from entering the
body
3. Protects underlying structures against abrasion
4. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet light and protects
underlying structures from its damaging effects
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Integumentary System Protection 2

5. Hair protection: The hair on the head acts as

a heat insulator, eyebrows keep sweat out of
the eyes, eyelashes protect the eyes from
foreign objects, and hair in the nose and ears
prevents the entry of dust and other
materials.
6. The nails protect the ends of the fingers and
toes from damage and can be used in
defense.

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Sensory Receptor
Many sensory receptors are associated with the
skin.
Receptors in the epidermis and dermis can
detect pain, heat, cold, and pressure.
Although hair does not have a nerve supply,
sensory receptors around the hair follicle can
detect the movement of a hair.

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Vitamin D Production
1. UV light causes the skin to produce a precursor
molecule of vitamin D.
2. The precursor molecule is carried by the blood
to the liver where it is enzymatically converted.
3. The enzymatically converted molecule is carried
by the blood to the kidneys where it is converted
again to the active form of vitamin D.
4. Vitamin D stimulates the small intestine to
absorb calcium and phosphate for many body
functions.
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Temperature Regulation 1

Regulation of body temperature is important

because the rate of chemical reactions within
the body can be increased or decreased by
changes in body temperature.
Even slight changes in temperature can make
enzymes operate less efficiently and disrupt the
normal rates of chemical changes in the body.
Exercise, fever, and an increase in environmental
temperature tend to raise body temperature.
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Temperature Regulation 2

In order to maintain homeostasis, the body must

rid itself of excess heat.
Blood vessels in the dermis dilate and enable
more blood to flow within the skin, thus causing
heat to dissipate from the body.
Sweat also assists in loss of heat through
evaporative cooling.

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Temperature Regulation 3

If body temperature begins to drop below

normal, heat can be conserved by the
constriction of dermal blood vessels, which
reduces blood flow to the skin.
Less heat is transferred from deeper structures
to the skin, and heat loss is reduced.
With smaller amounts of warm blood flowing
through the skin, the skin temperature
decreases.
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Heat Exchange in the Skin

Figure 5.8
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Excretion
The integumentary system plays a minor role in
excretion, the removal of waste products from
the body.
In addition to water and salts, sweat contains
small amounts of waste products, such as urea,
uric acid, and ammonia.
Even though the body can lose large amounts of
sweat, the sweat glands do not play a significant
role in the excretion of waste products.
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Diagnostic Aid
The integumentary system is useful in diagnosis
because it is observed easily.
Cyanosis, a bluish color to the skin caused by
decreased blood O2 content, is an indication of
impaired circulatory or respiratory function.
A yellowish skin color, called jaundice, can occur
when the liver is damaged by a disease, such as
viral hepatitis.
Rashes and lesions in the skin can be symptoms of
problems elsewhere in the body.
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Burns 1

A burn is injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold,

friction, chemicals, electricity, or radiation.
Burns are classified according to their depth.
Partial-thickness burns are classified as first-
degree and second-degree.
A full-thickness burn is a third-degree burn.

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First-Degree Burn
A first-degree (superficial)
burn involves only the
epidermis and is red and
painful.
Slight edema, or swelling, may
be present.
They can be caused by
sunburn or brief exposure to
very hot or very cold objects,
and they heal without scarring
in about a week.

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Second-Degree Burn
Second-degree (partial-thickness)
burns damage both the epidermis
and the dermis.
If dermal damage is minimal,
symptoms include redness, pain,
edema, and blisters.
Healing takes about 2 weeks, and
no scarring results.
If the burn goes deep into the
dermis, the wound appears red,
tan, or white; can take several
months to heal and might scar.

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Third-Degree Burn
Third-degree (full-thickness)
burns damage the complete
epidermis and dermis.
The region of third-degree burn is
usually painless because sensory
receptors in the epidermis and
dermis have been destroyed.
Third-degree burns appear white,
tan, brown, black, or deep cherry
red.

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Burn Healing
In all second-degree burns, the epidermis, including the
stratum basale where the stem cells are found, is
damaged.
The epidermis regenerates from epithelial tissue in hair
follicles and sweat glands, as well as from the edges of
the wound.
Deep partial-thickness and full-thickness burns take a
long time to heal, and they form scar tissue with
disfiguring and debilitating wound contractures.

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Treatment of Burns
To prevent complications of deep partial-thickness
and full-thickness burns and to speed healing, skin
grafts are often performed.
In a procedure called a split skin graft, the
epidermis and part of the dermis are removed from
another part of the body and placed over the burn
When it is not possible or practical to move skin
from one part of the body to a burn site, physicians
sometimes use artificial skin or grafts from human
cadavers.
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Burns 2

Figure 5.9
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Skin Cancer
Most common cancer
Mainly caused by UV light exposure
Fair-skinned people more prone
Prevented by limiting sun exposure and using
sunscreens
UVA rays cause tan and is associated with malignant
melanomas
UVB rays cause sunburns
Sunscreens should block UVA and UVB rays
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Types of Skin Cancer

Basal cell carcinoma:
• cells in stratum basale affected
• cancer removed by surgery
Squamous cell carcinoma:
• cells above stratum basale affected
• can cause death
Malignant melanoma:
• arises from melanocytes in a mole
• rare type
• can cause death
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Cancer of the Skin

Figure 5.13
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education (a) ©Dr. P. Marazzi/Science Source RF; (b) ©Dr. P. Marazzi/Science Source; (c) Source: National Cancer Institute
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Aging and the Integument

Blood flow decreases and skin becomes thinner
due to decreased amounts of collagen
Decreased activity of sebaceous and sweat
glands make temperature regulation more
difficult
Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag and
wrinkle

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