DEBRE MARKOS UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF LAND ADMINISTRATION

DEPARTMENT OF LAND ADMINISTRATION AND SURVEYING

Course Title: Basic Surveying

By: Takele Abebe (MSc. in Geodesy and Geomatics)

 Module Name: Land Surveying
 Module Number: 04
 Course Title: Basic Surveying
 Course Code: LaAd 1043
 Credit Hours: 4

By: Takele Abebe

June, 2014 E.C

2
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
After completing this chapter students are expected to
 Define what surveying mean.
 Explain the objectives and importance's of surveying.
 Identifying the different classification of surveying.
 Describe the unit of measurements used in surveying.
 Discuss the meaning of reference system in surveying.

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 1.1 Introduction to Surveying

 Surveying may be defined as the art and science of determining

the relative position of natural and man-made features on or
beneath the surface of the Earth.
 These features may then be represented in analog form as a
contoured map, plan or chart, or in digital form as a three
dimensional mathematical model stored in the computer.
 It is encompass all methods of measuring and collecting
information about the physical earth and our environment,
processing and disseminating a variety of resulting products to a
wide range of clients.

4
 Cont.
Surveying involved in both field and office work.
 The fieldwork consists in making observations with various
types of instruments to either
 Determine the relative locations of points or
 To set out in accordance with planned locations to guide
building and construction operations.
 The office work involves
 Conducting research and analysis in preparing for surveys,
 Computing and processing the data obtained from field
measurements, and
 Preparing maps, plats, charts, reports, and other documents
according to client specifications.

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 The Objective of Surveying

 Preparation of plans and maps of the areas. In the absence of

accurate maps, it is impossible to layout the alignment of road,
railways, canals, transmission power lines etc.
 Setting out
 To calculate the area, volume and others purpose.

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 Importance of Surveying
 Map the Earth above and below sea level.
 Prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land, and at sea.
 Establish property boundaries of private and public lands.
 Develop data banks of land-use and natural resource information
that aid in managing our environment.
 Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity, and magnetic fields of
the earth.
 Surveying is the link between design and construction;
 Roads, bridges, buildings, water supply sewerage, drainage
systems and many other essential public works

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 1.2 Principles of Surveying
The fundamental principles upon which the surveying is being
carried out are
 Working from whole to part. (high precise network to less or
control points survey to detail survey ).
 Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference.
After deciding the position of any point, its reference must be
kept from at least two permanent objects or stations whose
position have already been well defined.

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 1.3 Classification of Surveying
 Surveying is classified based on various criteria including the
instruments used, purpose, the area surveyed and the method used.
 Surveying is primarily divided in to two parts based on the
curvature of the earth being considered or ignore.
 Plane Surveying
 Geodetic Surveying

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 Plane Surveying
 Is type of surveying which assumes that the Earth is flat (plane),
which is the most commonly practiced form of surveying.
 Curvature of the earth is ignored and calculations are
performed using the formulas of plane trigonometry and the
properties of plane geometry.
 Mostly used in any engineering work like highway, canal, and
bridge etc.
 It consists primarily of locating the positions of features on the
ground (or fairly close to it) and all height are referenced to the
mean surface of the earth (mean sea level).
 If the area that you are covering with your survey is less than
about 250 km2,
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 L(horizontal)

Projection

Plumb bob

 Lcos Horizontal plane



Horizontal plane L

Figure plane surveying

 If the distance b/n two points A & B on the hillside is L then the
distance to be plotted is Lcos 

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 Geodetic Surveying

 Is type of surveying which consider the shape of the earth as

spherical or ellipsoid of revolution.
 As in plane surveying all height are referenced to the surface of
mean ellipsoid or mean sea level (MSL).
 Geodetic methods are employed to determine relative positions of
widely spaced monuments and to compute lengths and directions
of the long lines between them.
 These monuments serve as the basis for referencing other
subordinate surveys of lesser extent.
 Geodetic surveys are precise over large areas. Example: If the
distance between two points A & B on the earth surface is to be
measured. The distance or length of line connecting these two
points is treated as arc.
 Curvature correction are applied for every length.
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 C=L2-L1

L
L

A B

Figure Geodetic Surveying

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 Classification of Surveying Based on the Surface and The Area Surveyed

 Surveying is classified in to three parts according to their the

surface and the area surveyed
1. Land Surveying: Land surveys are done for objects on the surface
of the earth. It can be subdivided into:
 Topographical Surveying: - This kind of surveying is to show the
topography of mountain, terrain, river, water bodies, and roads. It
is three-dimensional. Topographical maps are used to select
routes, crossing for bridges, canals, and dams.

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 Cont.
 Cadastral Surveying: - The main aim of these surveying is to
fix boundary lines, calculation of the area of land properties and
preparation of revenue map for the state. This surveying is
generally plotted to large scale than topographical surveying.
 Engineering surveying: is used to acquire the required data for
the planning, design and execution of engineering projects like
roads, bridges, canals, dams, railways, buildings, etc.
 City Surveying: The surveys involving the construction and
development of towns including roads, parks, drainage, water
supply, sewage, street network, etc, are generally referred to as
city survey.

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 Cont

2. Hydrographic Surveying: This survey deals with the surveying or

mapping of large water bodies for the purpose of navigation, tidal
monitoring and construction of harbor works etc.
3. Astronomical Surveying: determining the absolute location of
place on the surface of the earth by making observation to
heavenly bodies (sun, moon, stars etc).

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 Classification of Surveying Based on Purpose

Surveying is also classified based up on purpose as:

 Engineering Surveying- for the execution of engineering works
such as roads, railways, dams.
 Mine Survey- for the control of underground workings for
mineral extraction.
 Geological Survey- for determining different strata in the earth.
 Military Survey - for determining points of strategic importance
 Archeological Survey: it is conducted to locate relics of
antiquity, civilization, kingdoms, forts, templets, etc.

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 Classification Based on Instruments
According to the instruments used surveying is classified in to:
 Chain Surveying
 Compass surveying
 Plane Table Surveying
 Theodolite Surveying
 Tacheometer Surveying
 Photogrammetric Surveying
 EDM Surveying

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 Surveying Instruments
 Total Stations, Tacheometer, Theodolites, Level, GPS, handheld
GPS
 Tape, Chain, Compass
 Plumb bob, Arrows, Pegs, Ranging Poles, Reflectors, staffs
 Prism squares
 Stages of Surveying Works
1. Planning, analysis and decision – the types measuring
instrument, measurement methods, and time of measurement
has to be planned.
2. Care and adjustment of instrument – surveying requires
experience in handling the equipment used in field and office
works.
3. Field works- consists of the measurement of angles and
distances and the keeping of record of what has been done in the
form of field notes. Field note includes numeric values, sketches
and explanatory notes.
4. Office works- consists of data processing, drafting , computing
and designing.
5. Setting out works – Marking the required points and sections
using peg on the field.
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 Field Notes
 Are the records of work done in the field. They typically contain
observations, sketches, descriptions and etc.
 Nowadays the instrument itself capable of collecting data but
still manually prepared sketches and description often
supplement.
 Surveying field notes (manual or by data collectors) are the only
permanent records of work done in the field.
 Recorded field data are used in the office to perform
computations, make drawings or both.
 Class of Surveys
1. Control survey establish a network of horizontal and vertical
monuments that serve as a reference framework for initiating
other surveys.
2. Detail measurement is the gathering of data (distances,
elevations, positions, and angles) to locate physical features
(for example, trees, rivers, roads, structures)
3. Setting-out surveys involve marking on the ground the
features shown on a design plan.
 1.4 Units of Measurements and Significant Figures

Generally measurements are classified in to two parts.

 Linear measurement: vertical distance and horizontal distances.
 Length: millimeter (mm), decimeter (dc), inches, feet (ft),
meter (m), mile (mi), Kilometer (km) and etc.
 Area: meter square (m2), hectare (h), kilometer square
(km2).
 Volume: meter cubic (m3) and others.
 The basic unit of length in the SI system is the meter. To
measure objects smaller than meter cm or mm is used and for
large measurement km or mile is used.
 Angular measurement: vertical and horizontal angles.
 Degrees, minutes, seconds, gon, and radians
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SI Units Prefix

24
 Equivalent Conversion of SI Units
.
Units
1 km =1000m
=0.621 mile
1m =10dm =100cm =1000mm
=3.281 foot
= 39.37 inch
1 h (100mx100m) =10, 000m2
1 dm =10cm =100mm
1 cm =10mm
1 inch =2.54cm
1 km squ. =106m2

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 Angle Measurement Units
 There are three systems used for plane angle measurements,
namely sexagesimal, centesimal and radiant (arc units).
1. Sexagesimal Units
 are used in many parts of the world and measure angles in
degrees, minutes and seconds of arc.
 A circle is divided into 360 equal degrees, so that a right angle
is 90.
 Degrees may be further divided into minutes and seconds.
 1° = 60’= 3600 ‘’
 Degree can written in decimal e.g 7.5°

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 Cont.
2. Radian Units
 are another unit of angle measurement used in most software,
consider the unit circle (a circle of radius 1) whose centre is the
vertex of the angle in question.
 Then the angle cuts off an arc of the circle, and the length of that
arc is the radian measure of the angle.
 It is easy to convert between degree measurement and radian
measurement.
 The circumference of the entire circle is 2 π (π is about 3.14159).
 2 π rad = 360°, π rad = 180 °.
 A radian is that angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
on the circumference equal in length to the radius of the circle, i.e.
 2π rad = 360◦ = 400 gon

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 Cont.
 Rounding off numbers needs great care.
1. Convert 1 radian to degree.
2. Convert 1 radian to second.
1. 1rad × 180/π = 1 rad =57.2957795131°
2. 1 rad =57.2957795131°x 3600" =1 rad = 206, 264.8062471“

or

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 Cont.

3. Centesimal System is common in Europe and measure angles in

gons (g)
 Full circle 2 π rad = 400 gon = 360 °
 Half circle π rad = 180° = 200 gon
 1 gon=100cgon =1000mgon.
 1 cgon = 10 mgon (milligon)

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 Cont.
 Questions
1. Change 92 gon to degree and radian
2. Change 5º 46 ’ 12 ‘’ to gon and radian.
3. Convert 66.4941º to DMS.

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 Significant Figures
 Are the number digits that are known with some degree of
confidence. It tells the accuracy of a measurement .
 The number of significant figures is in a measured quantity the
number of sure or certain digit plus one estimated digit.
 E.g 65.2756 is more certain than 65.
 All non-zero digits in a numbers are significant. E.g. 65.2756
 All zeros b/n two non-zero digits are significant. E.g. 206,
35.806.
 Leading zeros are NOT significant. E.g 0.54, 0.0032.
 Two significant figures: 42, 4.2, 0.43, 0.0042, 0.040
 Three significant figures: 836, 83.6, 80.6, 0.806, 0.0806, 0.00800
 Four significant figures: 7621, 76.21, 0.0007621, 24.00
 2.4 x 103, 2.40 x 103, 2.400 x 103 two, three and four significant
figures respectively. 31
 Rounding off Numbers
 Rounding off a number is the process of dropping one or more
digits so the answer contains only those digits that are significant.
 Rounding numbers makes them simpler and easier to use.
Although they're slightly less accurate, their values are still
relatively close to what they originally were.
 78.3749  78.37
 78.375  78.38
 78.385  78.38
 78.376  78.38
 These all are rounded to
four significant figures and
two decimal places.

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 1.5 Reference Systems
 Reference Surfaces are surfaces to which the measurement is
taken and the coordinates or the relative position of points are
determined.
 Every measurement in surveying needs reference surface as well
as datum to locate a point coordinate.
 The reference surface should also be defined to measure the
height of a point above it.
 Reference surfaces can be local or global depends up on the
required application.

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 Cont.
Geoid (mean sea level) is mean equipotential surface of the earth's
gravity field, which is used as a reference for height measurement
in leveling. Surfaces of equal gravitational potential. Geoids can
be local or global.
Ellipsoid is mathematical surface obtained by revolving an ellipse
about the earth’s polar axis.
 It is a geometric reference surface that closely approximates the
geoid and used by surveyors for the computation of geodetic and
rectangular coordinates.
 E.g. Clark 1880, WGS 84.

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35
Figure The geoid and ellipsoid

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 The separation (the height difference) between ellipsoid and
geoid is known as Geoid undulation (N).
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 Datum
 Is a reference from which measurements are made.
 In surveying, a datum is a collection of constants, physical
models, orientation and origin of, and it is used to define the
coordinate system.
 Horizontal datum's are used for describing a point on the earth's
surface, in latitude and longitude or another coordinate system.
 Vertical datum's measure elevations or depths.
 E.g. Adindan and WGS 84 datum's.

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 1.6 Types of Coordinates System

 Coordinates system which uses one or more numbers,

or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of a point or
other geometric element.
 Coordinate systems may be classified as 1D, 2D, or 3D coordinate
systems, according to the number of coordinates required to
identify the location of a point.
 Types of Coordinates system
1. Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates (x, y, z)
2. Geographic (geodetic) coordinates (ϕ, λ, h)
3. Spherical coordinates (r, ϕ, λ)
 3-D Rectangular (Cartesian) Coordinates System
 Rectangular coordinate system is composed of three equally
perpendicular axes. The 3D Cartesian coordinate is defined by three
axes at right angles to each other, forming a 3D space.
 Cartesian coordinates simplify many mathematical calculations as
the origin is at the mass center of the earth.
 Most commonly used Catersian coordinate system is global
geocentric coordinate with the following property.
 The origin is the mass center of the earth.
 Z axis along the axis of the ellipsoid, goes from the origin
to mean north pole.
 X- and Y-axis in the plane of the equator, X axis is from
the origin to the intersection of equator and Greenwich
meridian (0 degree longitude).
 Y-axis positive toward 90 degrees east longitude. 40
Figure 1.6 Geocentric Cartesian coordinates system

41
 2-D Cartesian Coordinates
 Flat map has only two dimensions: width (left to right) and length
(bottom to top).
 Transforming the three dimensional Earth into a two-dimensional
map is subject of map projections and coordinate transformations.
 known as planar rectangular coordinates, are used to describe the
location of any point in a map or plane, unambiguously.
 It is a system of intersecting perpendicular lines, which contains
two principal axes, called the X- axis (Easting) and Y-axis
(Northing). The intersection of the X- and Y-axis forms the origin.
(x,y). It is almost always a rectangular system and is used on large
and medium scale maps to enable detailed calculations and
positioning.

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 Cont.

Figure 2-D Cartesian coordinate system

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 2-D Polar Coordinates (α, d)
 The coordinate system in which the position of a point in 2-D
determined in forms of the distance d from the origin to the point
and the angle a between a fixed (or zero) direction and the
direction to the point.
 The angle α is called azimuth or bearing and is measured in a
clockwise direction. It is given in angular units while the
distance d is expressed in length units.

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 Cont.

Figure Polar coordinate system

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 Cont.
 The transformation of polar coordinates (α,d) into Cartesian
coordinates (x,y) is done when field measurements; angular and
distance measurements are transformed into map coordinates.
 The equation for this transformation is:

 The inverse equation is:

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 3-D Geodetic Coordinates System
 The geodetic coordinate defines the position of a point on the
surface of the Earth with respect to the reference ellipsoid.
 The geodetic coordinate is defined using three quantities: latitude,
longitude, and the geodetic height (ϕ, λ, h).
 It is measured in distance units along the ellipsoidal normal from
the point to the ellipsoid surface.
 Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to
the equator. The equator is the zero latitude (ϕ =0) which divides
the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
 A line passing near the Royal Observatory, Greenwich (near
London in the UK) has been chosen as the international zero-
longitude reference line, the Prime Meridian.
 Greenwich meridian (λ=0°) divide the globe in to Eastern and
Western Hemisphere (λ = -180° (180°W) and λ = + 180° (180°E)).
48
Figure 3-D Geodetic Coordinates
49
 2-D Geographic Coordinates
 Are the most widely used global coordinate system consists of
lines of geographic latitude (φ) and longitude (λ).
 Lines of equal latitude are called parallels. They form circles on
the surface of the ellipsoid.
 Lines of equal longitude are called meridians and they form
ellipses (meridian ellipses) on the ellipsoid.
 Note that the concept of geographic coordinates can also be
applied to a sphere as the reference surface.

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Figure 1.9 Geographic coordinate system
51
 Cont.
 The latitude (φ) of a point P is the angle between the ellipsoidal
normal through P and the equatorial plane.
 Latitude is zero on the equator and increases towards the two
poles to maximum values of +90 (90°N) at the North Pole and -
90° (90°S) at the South Pole.
 The longitude (λ) is the angle between the meridian ellipse which
passes through Greenwich and the meridian ellipse containing the
point in question.
 It is measured in the equatorial plane from the meridian of
Greenwich (λ = 0°) either eastwards through λ = + 180° (180°E)
or westwards through λ = -180° (180°W).

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 Spherical Coordinates System (r, ϕ, λ )
 This coordinate system represent the point on the surface of the
Earth by its distance from the origin (r), geocentric latitude (ϕ),
the angle which determine how the line is separated from the
equatorial plane, and geocentric longitude (λ), angle which
determines how much the vertical plane though the point is
separated from Greenwich meridian measured on the equatorial
plane.
 1.7 Plans and Maps

 Map is a topographical representation of various elements,

location, places, regions etc. all the information present on
maps can be seen on site. Map is a study of the whole
location. It is given information about important points.

 Plan is a dimensional representation place, region,

structure, building with various detail information. It also
includes hidden data and diagrams. It gives detailed
information about small areas in symbolic forms.
 Cont.
 Map: Generally, map is said to be a visual representation of an
area.
 Plan: are a set of 2D diagrams or drawings used to describe a
place or an object, or to communicate building or fabrication
instructions.
 Map is a drawing showing the geographical features, facilities,
roads, places, water bodies etc.. (natural & built) preferably
covering large areas of land & waters.
 Plan is a drawing showing the proposed construction /
development indicating the dimensions / measurements for
further implementation.
 Plan are drawn on a large scale however map is on a small scale.
 E.g Plan of house, bridges and map of the area.
 1.8 Scale of the Map

 Scale is the ratio of distances between points on a map to ground.

There are three primary ways to indicate scale on a map
 Statement scale : "1 Map Unit = X Land Units" e.g 1cm = 100m
 Representative fraction : ‘1 map unit is equivalent to 24,000 land
units’ 1/24,000 or 1: 24, 000
 Graphical Scale : line subdivided into plan distance
corresponding to convenient units of length on the ground.

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 CHAPTER 2

THEORY OF ERROR AND ADJUSTMENT

57
 2.1 Introduction to Errors
 In surveying measurement, nothing is ever absolutely certain.
 Survey results can never be exactly true for a number of reasons.
 Although survey measuring procedures are designed to remove as
many errors as possible there will always be some sources of error
that cannot be compensated for.
Error = measured value – true value.
 The true value of an observation is never known, and,
 The exact error present is always unknown.

58
 Cont.
 All survey measurements are subject to external factors, for
example all observed angles are subject to the effects of
refraction, and observed distances, whether EDM or tape, will
vary with temperature. The process of getting from observations
to coordinates involves reductions of, and corrections to, observed
data.
 The surveyor’s task is to understand the source and nature of the
errors in the survey work and appreciate how the observing
methods and the computing process may be designed to minimize
and quantify them.

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 2.2 Accuracy and Precision

 Accuracy is the relationship between the value of a measurement

and the "true" or theoretically correct value of the dimension being
measured.
 It denotes the absolute nearness of observed quantities to their true
values or Close to the true value.
 Since the true value is never known. Then it is also impossible the
accuracy to be known. It can only be estimated.
 Precision describes the refinement of the measuring process and
the ability to repeat the same measurement with consistently small
variations (that is, no large discrepancies) in the measurements.
 Precision is a measure of repeatability. Close to each other.
 High precision does not necessarily indicate high accuracy.

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Figure 2.1 Accuracy and Precision

61
 2.3 Types and Sources of Errors in Surveying

The sources of errors in surveying measurement

1) Natural errors: caused by variation in or adverse weather
conditions, temperature, wind, refraction etc.
2) Instrumental errors: caused by using imperfect construction
and adjustment of the surveying instruments.
3) Personal errors: caused by the inability of the individuals to
make exact observations due to the limitations of human sight,
touch and hearing.

62
 Types of Errors in Surveying

1. Mistakes
 Are sometimes called gross errors, but should not be classified as
errors at all. Mainly covers the human mistakes in reading the
instruments, recording and calculating the measurement results.
 The observer blunders and are usually caused by
misunderstanding the problem, carelessness, fatigue, missed
communication, or poor judgment or the inexperience of the
surveyor. E.g false reading , misinterpretation .
 Faults in equipments, adoption of wrong technique.
 They must be detected by careful and systematic checking of all
work, and eliminated by repeating some or all of the
measurements.

63
 Cont.
2. Systematic errors
 can be constant or variable throughout an operation, and are
generally attributable to known circumstances.
 The value of these errors may often be calculated and applied as a
correction to the measured quantity.
 It is known as biases, resulted from factors that comprise the
“measuring system”, the environment, instrument, and observer
factor.
 Cumulative error
 Systematic errors classified
 Environmental errors
 Instrumental errors
 Observational errors
64
 Cont.
3. Random errors
 Are those variants which remain after all systematic errors
mistakes have been reduced and removed.
 They are beyond the control of the observer and result from the
human inability of the observer to make exact measurements.
 Caused by unknown and unpredictable human factors, instrument
errors.
 The size and sign of any random error is quite unpredictable.
 sometimes called accidental errors
 Random errors are small and there is no procedure that will
compensate for or reduce any single error, but they can be
estimated using adjustment procedures known as least squares
adjustment
65
 2.4 Most Probable Value
 Since the true value of a measured quantity cannot be determined,
the exact value of error can never be found out.
 However, most probable value can be calculated if a redundant
observations have been made.
 Mpv of the measurement is the arithmetic mean of the set of
measurements, provided that they are all made independently but
under similar condition.

Mpv= ∑xi/n
Where xi is individual measured quantity.
n is number of measurement.

66
 2.5 Residuals
 A residual is simply the difference between the most probable
value and any observed value of a quantity,
v=mpv-x
where v is the residual in any observation x, and mpv is the most
probable value for the quantity.
 Residuals are theoretically identical to errors, with the exception
that residuals can be calculated whereas errors cannot because true
values have never been known.
 Thus, residuals rather than errors are the values actually used in
the analysis and adjustment of survey data.
 The residuals express the variations or deviations in the
measurements.

67
 2.6 Standard Deviation

 Standard deviation is a statistical measure of spread or variability

root-mean square (R.M.S.) deviation of values from arithmetic
mean, and for the population, assuming the observations are of
equal reliability it is expressed as

68
 Cont.
 However, μ cannot be determined from a sample of observations.
Instead, the arithmetic mean is accepted as the most probable
value and the population standard deviation is estimated as

Or

69
 2.7 Variance

 Square of standard deviation which also for a measures of spread

of distribution.
 Variance is the uncertainty of measurement showing the possible
variance with plus and minus factor.
 E.g You measure the length of an object five times …53.33cm,
53.32cm,53.36,53.34,and 53.38 the average is 53.35cm, this
should be written as 53.35 ± 0.03cm.

70
 2.8 Standard Deviation of the Mean

 Standard Deviation tells us about the shape of our distribution,

how close the individual data values are from the mean value.
 Standard error tells us how close our sample mean is to the true
mean of the overall population.
The standard error of mean m is given by

71
 2.9 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors
 The 90 and 95 percent errors are commonly used to specify
precisions required on surveying (geomatics) projects.
 Often used as a criterion for rejecting individual observations
from sets of data.
 The probability of an error of any percentage likelihood can be
determined. The general equation is

 Where is a certain percentage error and the corresponding

numerical factor under the relation between error and percentage
of area normal distribution curve.
 The 50 percent error is called probable error.

72
 2.10 Confidence Limit
 After establishing the sample mean as estimate of the true value
of the quantity, the range of values within which the true value
should lie for a given probability is required.
 Confidence limit is two numbers that define the range.
 This range is called the confidence interval, its bounds called the
confidence limits

73
 2.11 Weight of Observation
 Weights are expressed numerically and indicate the relative
precision of quantities within a set. The greater weight, the greater
precision of the observation to which it relates.
 The measurement indicates the reliability of a quantity. It is
inversely proportional to the variance (2 ) of the observation.

 If the weights and the standard errors for observations x 1, x2, ,…..,
etc., are respectively 1 , 2,….., etc., and 1 , 2,….., etc., and u
is the standard error for the observation having unit weight then

and

74
 Weighted Mean
 The weights are applied to the individual measurements of
unequal reliability to reduce them to one standard. The most
probable value is then the weighted mean of the measurements.

 Suppose four observations of a distance are recorded as 482.16,

482.17, 482.20, and 482.18 and given weights of 1, 2, 2, and 4,
respectively, by the surveyor.
 Determine the weighted mean.
 2.12 Error Propagation
 All measurements contain an errors it is inevitable that the
quantities computed from them will not have errors.
 The manner by which errors in measurements combine to produce
erroneous computed answers is called error propagation.
 It is created through a mathematics relationship between the
computed quantities and the measured quantities.
 E.g The calculation of quantities such as areas, volumes, difference
in height, horizontal distance, etc., using the measured quantities
distances and angles, is done through mathematical relationships
between the computed quantities and the measured quantities.
 Evaluation of the errors in the computed quantities as the function
of errors in the measurements.

76
 Cont.

where dx1, dx2 ....., etc., are the errors in x1, x2,....., etc., and  x1 ,
x2 ....., etc., are their standard deviations.

77
CHAPTER 3
LEVELING

78
 3. Introduction to Leveling

 Leveling:- a process or methods of determining the vertical

distance of a points relative to an assumed level surface.
 Leveling is the most widely used method for obtaining the
elevations of ground points relative to a reference datum and is
usually carried out as a separate procedure from that used for
fixing plan metric position.
 Leveling involves the measurement of vertical distance relative to
a horizontal line of sight.
3.1 The objectives of leveling
 To find the elevation of given point with respect to some assumed
reference line called datum.
 To establish point at a required elevation respect to datum.

79
 Cont.
Leveling results are used to
 Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems,
and other facilities having grade lines that best conform to
existing topography;
 Lay out construction projects according to planned elevations;
 Calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials;
 Investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
 Develop maps showing general ground configurations.

80
 3.2 Definition of Basic Terms

1. Datum:- is any reference surface to which the elevation

(vertical distance) of a points are referred. The most commonly
used datum is mean sea level.
2. Elevation: - is the vertical distance of a points above or below
an assumed datum (level surface).
3. Leveling:- The process or methods of determining the vertical
distance of a points relative to an assumed level surface.
4. Level line:- is the surface of which has a constant height
relative to mean sea level.
5. Horizontal line:- this is a line which is tangential to the level
line or a line which is normal to direction of gravitas

81
Horizontal and level lines
82
 Cont.
6. Bench mark (BM):- are permanent reference points or marks at
which their elevation (reduced level) has been accurately
determined by leveling from other permanent BM.
7. Reduced level (RL):- is the height above or below a reference
datum- similar to elevation.
8 . Temporary bench mark (TBM):- are marks let up on stable points
near construction sites which all leveling operation on that
particular site will be referred.
9. Back sight (BS):- is the staff reading taken on points of known
elevation as a BM or a turning points.
10. Fore sights (FS):- is the staff reading on points whose elevation is
to be determined as a turning points. It is the last staff reading
denoting the shifting of the instruments.

83
 Cont.
11. Intermediate sights (IS):- any other staff reading taken on a points
at unknown elevation from the same set up of the level. All
sights b/n BS & FS are IS.
12. Turning points (TP):- is a point on which both the BS and FS
readings are taken, staff held at this point first FS is taken, then
instrument is shifted to new point, and BS is taken on the same
point. It is called Change Point.
13. Station:- is a points of which whose elevation is to be
determined.
14. Height of instruments:- is the vertical distance from the datum to
the instrument line sight.

84
 3.3 Equipments Used In Leveling

Basically three equipments are needed in leveling.

 Level – to give the true horizontal line
 Staff – to read vertical height
 Tape – to measure height of instruments

85
 Cont.
Note: There are three types of level instriment
 Tilting: tilting levels were used for the most precise work. saves
time and increases accuracy, since only one screw need be
manipulated to keep the line of sight horizontal.
 Automatic: incorporate a self-leveling feature. Most of these
instruments have a three-screw leveling head, which is used to
quickly center bubble. it has become popular for general use
because of the case and rapidity of their operation.
 Digital: The newest type of automatic level, the electronic digital
level. It is classified in the automatic category because it uses a
pendulum compensator to level itself.

86
 Cont.
.

87
 3.4 Principle of Leveling
 The instruments are set up at the mid distance between the BS and
FS and correctly leveling in order to make the line of sight
through the telescope horizontal.
 Let the instrument set up approximately midway between ground
points A & B. If the reduced level (RL) of points A is known, then
the elevation at B is
Elev at B = elev at A + (BS at A –FS at B).
For instance the elevation at B in the following figure is
Elevation at B = 100m + (3m-1m) = 102m

88
 Line of Collimation 1m

3m

100m

89
 FS (BS) IS
FS
IS

BS

2.0 2.5 3.0

1.50 2.5 0.50

B
E

TBM D A F
G

D (IS)
C (TBM)
F (IS)

E (FS, BS)
G (FS)

90
 Cont.
– Let RL be reduced level. Then
RLC = TBM
RLD = RLC + (BS at C – IS at D)
RLE = RLC + (BS at C – FS at E)
RLF = RLE + (BS at E – IS at F)
RLG = RLE + (BS at E – FS at G)
– Elevation difference between the points.
BS - FS = Rise or Fall
BS - FS = positive = Rise
BS – FS = negative = Fall
BS-IS = Rise or Fall
IS-FS = Rise or Fall
91
 3.4.1 Methods of Booking in Leveling

There are two methods of booking in the field for leveling.

Rise & fall method
Height of instrument method.
Method – 1 Rise and fall methods
 The readings are booked in a level book which is specially printed
for the purpose.
 The reductions of these readings are carried out in the same book.
Each reading entered on different line in the applicable column
except the points, where a foresight and back sight occupy the
same line.

92
 Cont.

Note: The very important check must be applied to the reductions.

 BS   FS  Rise   Fall Last RL  First RL

93
 Rise and fall methods

Staff
BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remark
Position

C 1.5 100 T. B. M.

D 2.5 1 99

E 2 0.5 2 101 C. P.
F 2.5 0.5 100.5
G 3.0 0.5 100
Sum 3.5 3.5 2 2
Arithmetic 3.5 - 03.5 =0 = 100 - 100
check

 BS   FS  Rise   Fall Last RL  First RL

 Cont.
Method – 2 Height of plane of collimation method
 The height of plane of collimation methods sometimes called
height of instruments.
 The height of collimation is obtained by adding the staff reading,
which must be back sight, to know RL of the points on which the
staff stands.
 All other reading are deducted from the height of collimation until
the instruments setting is changed.
 Where upon the new height of collimation is determined by
adding the back sight to the RL of the change points.
 The reading and computed values are booked is a level books
which is specifically printed for

95
 Cont.

HI = known elevation + BS
Elevation = HI-FS
Note: The arithmetic check to be applied to this system of booking
are
(BS) - (FS) = Last RL – First RL

96
 Height of Instrument Method

Staff
BS IS FS HI RL Remark
Position

C 1.5 101.5 100 T.BM.

D 2.5 99

E 2 0.5 103 101 CP.

F 2.5 100.5
G 3.0 100
Sum 3.5 3.5
Arithmetic
3.5 - 03.5 =0 = 100 - 100
check

(BS) - (FS) = Last RL – First RL

 The Comparison of Line of Collimation and Rise-Fall Method

Height of Collimation
1. It is more rapid & save time.
2. This method is use for reduction of level for construction work
such as longitudinal or cross sectional leveling operation.
3. There is no check for reduction of RLs of intermediate site.
4. There are only two arithmetic check.
5. Errors, if any in IS are not detected.

98
 Cont.
Rise fall method
1. It is laborious to compute the rise & fall then RL
2. It is well adopted for determining difference in elevation of two
points.
3. There is complete check on reduction of RLs of IS.
4. There is an arithmetic check.
5. Errors in IS are detected.

99
 3.4.2 Misclosure, Limits and Distribution of Leveling
 A loop closure or misclosure is the amount by which a level
circuit fails to close.
 It is the difference of elevation of the measured or computed
elevation and known or established elevation of the same point.
 Thus, loop closure is given by
Misclosure = computed value of R.L. – known value of R.L.
 Misclosure is leveling operation are an indication of the accuracy
of the work. It is important to realize the amounts of misclosure in
leveling can only be assessed by
1. Connecting the leveling back to the BM from which it started
or
2. Connecting in to another BM of known and ground elevation.

100
 Cont.
.

101
 Cont.
 When the misclosure is assessed, one must then decide if it is
acceptable or not.
 In many cases depending upon the terrain and the kinds of work
the Engineer decide based upon the tolerance required.
 Alternating the permissible may be based on the distance traveled
or number of set up involved.

 Allowable error =
Where n = No. of instrument setup
M = Constant is ( 5mm)
 In many engineering case the distance involved is quite short but
the number of setup is quite high.

102
 Cont.
 If actual misclosure > allowable misclosure, levelling should be
repeated.
 If actual misclosure < allowable misclosure, misclosure should be
equally distributed between the instrument positions.
Correction per set up = ( E/n)
 Correction applied for each setup = opposite sign of error; If the
error is –ve the error correction applied is +ve vice versa.

103
Staff Corrected
BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Correction Remark
Position RL

1 1.361 20.842 20.842 TBM ‘A’

2 2.844 1.483 19.359 –0.002 19.357

3 2.018 0.826 20.185 –0.002 20.183
4 0.855 3.015 0.997 19.188 –0.002 19.186 C.P
5 0.611 0.244 19.432 –0.004 19.428
6 2.741 1.805 1.194 18.238 –0.004 18.234 C.P
7 2.855 1.711 1.03 19.268 –0.006 19.262 C.P.
8 1.362 1.493 0.749 20.761 –0.008 20.753
9 2.111 1.255 20.012 –0.008 20.004
10 0.856 21.267 –0.008 21.259

TBM ‘B’
11 2.015 1.159 20.108 –0.008 20.1
(20.100)

Sum 7.812 8.546 4.848 5.582

check -0.734 -0.734 -0.734
 3.5 Mistakes & Errors in Leveling

Some of the mistakes commonly made in leveling are

1. Confusion of the number is reaching of the staff.
2. Recording the BS in the foresight column and vice- versa.
3. Rods or staffs not held in the same point for foresight and back
sight in turning point. etc.
4. Instrumental level error.

105
 Source of Errors in Leveling

1. Instrumental errors
 Line of sight not truly Hz (Collimation error)
 Cross hair not exactly Hz
 Rod do not correct length
 Tripod legs loose
2. Natural errors
 Curvature of the earth
 Refraction
 Temperature, wind, settlement of the instrument.
3. Personal errors: bubble not centered, parallax, fault reading, poor
rod handling & wrong target setting.

106
 1. Instrument Errors
These are error which occurs due to the defects of instrument such
as A) Collimation error-: The error occurs if the line of the sight
is not truly horizontal when the tubular bubble is centered i.e the
line of sight is inclined up or down from the horizontal. A Cheek
known as Two –peg’ test is used.

a1

e Horizontal line

Collimation error

107
 Cont.
B) Defect of staff: - It is possible that the staff production may be
incorrect and new or repaired. The staff shall be corrected using
steel tape. Particular attention shall be given to the base of the
staff to see. If this is the case then the staff has zero error. This
does not affect the height difference if the same staff is used for
all leveling. But introduce error if two staff are to be used for the
same series of leveling.
C) Tripod defects: - stability of tripod should be checked before
any field work. If the metal shoes at the base of each leg are not
loose once extended the leg can be tightened insufficiently.

108
 2. Personal Errors

These are errors which occur due to the following.

1. Staff not vertical: Since the staff is used to measure the vertical
distance b/n the ground and the line of sight, failure to hold the
staff vertical will result incorrect reading.
2. Handling the instruments & tripod: The HI may be altered for
any set up if the tripod is held or leant against while leveling.
Avoid contact the tripod and only use the level by contact via
finger tips. If at any state the tripod is disturbed, it will be
necessary to repeat the instruments set up and all the reading
taken from that instruments position.

109
3. Effect of Curvature of the Earth & Refractions Light
 Curvature of the Earth: For long sights the curvature of earth can
effect staff readings. The line of sight is horizontal but the level
l i n e is curved and parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of
the earth.
 The vertical distance between the line of sight and level line at
particular place is called the curvature correction.
 The effect of curvature of the earth is to increase the rod reading.
Equalizing lengths of back and fore sights in differential leveling
cancels the error due to this cause.
 Refraction: Light rays coming from an object to the telescope are
bent, making the line of sight a curve concave to the earth’s
surface, which thereby decreases rod readings.
 Balancing the lengths of back and fore sights usually eliminates
errors due to refraction. 110
 Correction for Curvature and Refraction Effect
 The effect of curvature is to increase the staff reading and the
effect of refraction is to decrease the staff reading.
 The curvature error is more than the refraction error.
 So the combined effect is to increase staff reading. Hence, the
combined correction is subtractive in nature.
 Correction for the error due to curvature and refraction in meter
given by:

Curvature correction, Cc = – 0.07849*D^2

Refraction Correction, Cr = 0.01121*D^2
Combined Correction, C = Cc + Cr = -0.06728*D^2
here D is distance in kilometer.
111
 3.6 Types of Leveling

1. Simple leveling
2. Differential leveling
3. Fly leveling
4. Check leveling
5. Precision leveling
6. Reciprocal leveling
7. Trigonometric leveling

112
 Cont.
1. Simple leveling: it is the simplest method used, when it is
required to find the difference in elevation between two points.
2. Differential leveling: this method is used to find the difference of
elevation between points if they are far part or the difference in
elevation is too much.
3. Fly leveling: The permanent bench mark can be located far away
from starting points of proposed road. So, fly leveling should be
done to connect the BM with starting points of the work in order
to locates its RL and then calculate RLs of different points along
the alignments.
Note: In fly leveling only the back sight and foresight reading
should be recorded.

113
 Cont.
4. Check leveling: this kinds of levelling is carried out to check the
accuracy of work. it is done at the end of the days work in the
form of fly levelling to connect the finishing point with starting
point.
5. Precision leveling: it is used for establishing bench marks for
future public use. It is carried out with high degree of accuracy
using advanced instruments.

114
 Cont.

6. Reciprocal leveling: is employed to determine the correct

difference of elevation between two points which are quite apart
and where it is not possible to set up the instrument between the
two points for balancing the sights.
 It eliminates the errors due to the curvature of the earth,
atmospheric refraction and collimation.
 If the two points between which the difference of level is required
to be determined are A and B then in reciprocal levelling, the first
set of staff readings (a1 and b1) is taken by placing the staff on A
and B, and instrument close to A. The second set of readings (a2
and b2) is taken again on A and B by placing the instrument close
to B. The difference of level between A and B is given
 hAB =1/2((a1 – b1) + (a2 – b2)), elevation at B = hA + hAB

115
116
 Cont.
7. Trigonometric leveling: is the processing of determining the
elevation difference (vertical distance) between points using
observing horizontal distance and vertical angle between points.
 Is used where terrain is difficult, such as mountainous areas,
precludes the use of conventional differential leveling.
 The modern approach is to measure the slope distance and vertical
angle to the point in question.
 Slope distance is measured using electronic distance measuring
(EDM) and the vertical (or zenith) angle using a Theodolite.
 If the distance between the instrument station and object is small,
correction for earth’s curvature and refraction is not required.

117
 Cont.
.

Figure Trigonometric leveling—short lines

118
 Cont.
 If slope distance S and zenith angle z or altitude angle between C
and D are observed, then V, the elevation difference between C
and D, is

 Alternatively, if horizontal distance H between C and D is

measured, then V is

 The difference in elevation between points A and B

Elevation at B = elevation at A + 𝚫 elevation b/n A and B 119

 How to Write Leveling Practical Field Report

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Instrument used
4. Field work
5. Raw data (measured data)
6. Adjusted data
7. Conclusion and recommendation
8. References.

120
 CHAPTER 4
DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
At the end of this lesson students are able to
 Define horizontal distance measurement.
 Identify methods of distance measurement .
 Identify and solve the obstacles faced in the practical field work.
 Explain the causes of error in tape measurement and calculate the
correction applied .

121
 4.1 Traditional Distance Measurement Methods
 One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination
of the distance between two points on the earth's surface for use
in fixing position, set out and in scaling.
 In plane surveying, the distances measured are reduced to their
equivalent horizontal distance either by the procedures used to
make the measurement or by applying numerical corrections for
the slope distance .
 The method to be employed in measuring distance depends on the
required accuracy of the measurement.

122
 Cont.

 In surveying, linear measurements have been obtained by many

different methods. These include:

 Pacing
 Odometer readings Direct Methods
 Taping
 Optical method
 EDM Indirect methods
 Satellite systems
 Surveyors most commonly use taping, EDM, and satellite
systems today.
 4.1.1 Direct Methods
1. Pacing: consists of counting the number of steps or paces in the
required distance.
 Distance is calculated by multiplying the numbers of paces by
individual paces factor.
 It is used in reconnaissance surveys & in small scale mapping
2. Odometer readings: an odometer converts the number of
revolutions of a wheel of known circumference to a distance.
 The distance travelled is then calculated by multiplying the
number of wheel rotations by the tyre circumference.

124
 Cont.
3. Chaining: is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying of an
area using linear measurements only. It can be defined as the process
of taking direct measurement, although not necessarily with a chain.
 The chain is usually made of steel wire, and consists of long links
joined by shorter links.
 It is designed for hard usage, and is sufficiently accurate for
measuring the chain lines and offsets of small surveys.
 But nowadays due to improved manufacturing techniques the
chain has been replaced by steel tapes.

125
 Cont.
4. Taping: - this method involves direct measurement of distances
with a tape.
 Tape: it is the simplest and most commonly used instruments such
as Cloth or Linen, Metallic, Steel, Fiber Glass and Invar Tape.
 Steel Tapes are most commonly used. It is available in lengths
varying from 15m to 100m.

126
 Other Instruments Used In Horizontal Measurement
 The other instruments, which are involved in measuring a distance
(horizontal), i.e. to make station, are
1. Peg: these are either wooden or steel which are either circular or
square with length 30cm used to mark the station.
2. Arrow: made of 12 mm diameter steel used for counting the
number of chains while measuring a chain line.
3. Ranging rod: a circular section of 2m, 2.5m or 3m pointed with
red & white with diameter of 3cm used for marking the position
of stations, and for sightings of those stations, as well as for
ranging straight lines
4. Ranging pole: similar to ranging rod with heavier in section and
length of 4 – 6m high used in long survey line.

127
 Cont.

4. Tripod: in hard or paved pound tripod is used to support the

ranging rods.
5. Plumb bob: This is used to transfer the end points of the chain
where measuring distance are in a hilly terrain. It is also to test the
verticality of ranging rod leveling etc.
6. Optical square: two pentagonal prisms mounted one above the
other in a metal or plastic housing. The instrument is used for
establishing and checking alignments and to raise an offset.

128
 Cont.

129
 Ranging Out Survey Lines
 When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, a
straight is required to be laid between the points/stations along
which a measurement are to be carried out.
 Ranging is the process of establishing intermediate points on a
straight line between two end points.
 Ranging must be done before a survey line is chained.
Methods of ranging are
 Direct Ranging: when the end stations are inter visible, ranging is
being carried out directly.

130
 Cont.
 Indirect ranging: when the end stations between which a straight
line is to be laid, are not inter visible indirect method of ranging
is adopted.
 Intermediate points are fixed by reciprocal ranging.

131
 Principle of Chaining

 To measure the length of a line, which is greater than the length of

the tape. At least two persons are needed in chaining i.e. with two
chainmen.
 Leader (front man) chainman (ranging the rod & peg).
 Follower (back man) chainman (holds the zero of the tape).
 One who is recording the measurements (optional).
Obstacles in Chaining
1. Obstacles which obstruct ranging (vision) but not chaining
 In this case the ends of chain lines are not visible such obstacles
are generally get in undulated ground where it is consists of rising
ground interlining hill. Two cases may occur.
 When ends are visible from intermediate points on the chain line.
 When ends are not inter visible from any intermediate points on
the chain line.
132
 Cont.

2. Obstacles which obstruct chaining but not ranging

 Typical obstructions are –large water bodies like lake, ponds. Here
we might want to know the distance between two convenient
points on either side of obstacles on the chain line.
 Two cases are happens
– It is possible to chain round the obstacle. E.g Pond
– It is not possible to chain round the obstacle. E.g River

133
 Cont.

Case-1 when chaining round an obstacle is possible.

Method-1 by constructing rectangle.
Length of AD = BC

Chain line D
A

L1 L1

B C

134
 Cont.
Method-2 by constructing right-angled triangle.
• Required to know the length AB along the pond.

2 2
AB  BC 2  AB 2  l2  l1

A B

L1
L2

135
 Cont.

Method–3 by constructing similar triangles.

• Required to know length of AB
• Length of AB = length of ED

A B B
A

L1 O
L2 SAS similarity
C
O
C

E D

136
 Cont.
Case II when chaining round an obstacle is not possible
 Typical examples of such conditions are crossing a big river by
chain surveying.
 There are a number of methods to overcome this problem.
Method –1: by constructing similar triangle.

Measure ED, EA, & AC B

BAC DFC E
L2
D

AB = EA. AC
L2
A C
L1 F

137
 Cont.

 Set out perpendicular AD.

 Set C at mid point.
 Set out perpendicular DE, such that E is on the line of sight of CB.
Then, AB = DE

C L1
A L1 D

138
 Offset in Chain Surveying

 The lateral measurement taken from an object to the chain line is

known as offset.
 Offsets are taken to locate objects with reference to the chain line
 In chain surveying, the positions of details i.e. boundaries, roads
churches stream bends etc. are located with respect to the chain
line by measuring their distance right or left of the chain lines.
 Such lateral measurements are called offset.
 There are two kinds of offset.
 Perpendicular offsets.
 Oblique offsets.

139
 Cont.
 Perpendicular offsets: when the lateral measurements for fixing
detail points are made perpendicular to chain lines, the offset is
known perpendicular offsets or right angle offsets.
 Oblique offsets: when the lateral measurements for fixing detail
points are made of any angle to the chain line, the offsets are
known as oblique offsets.
 Oblique offset taken when the objects are at the long distance
from the chain line or when it is not possible to set up a right
angle.

140
 Cont.
Measurements of perpendicular offsets
 The offsets are generally measured using either metallic or steel
tapes depending up on the accuracy required of surveying.
 For every offset the following information has to book.
 The distance along the chain line or chainage.
 The length of the offsets.
 Instruments for measuring right angles in chain surveying are
Optical square, Prism squares and Cross staff .

141
 Cont.
 3-4-5 method used to erect a perpendicular from the chain line to
a point (detail).

142
 Errors in Taping

The common source of errors in taping are the following:

1. Incorrect length of tape
2. Temperature variation
3. Inconsistent pull
4. Sag
5. Poor alignment
6. Tape not horizontal
7. Improper plumbing
8. Faulty marking
9. Incorrect reading or interpolation.

143
 Tape Errors and Corrections

 Tape measurements require certain corrections to be applied to the

measured distance depending upon the conditions under which the
measurements have been made.
 In surveying, tape correction(s) refer(s) to correcting
measurements for the effect of slope angle, expansion or
contraction due to temperature, and the tape's sag, which varies
with the applied tension

144
 Correction for Absolute Length
 The designated or nominal length of tape, as stated by the
manufacturer, rarely equal to true distance.
 The difference of designated length and the actual length is known
as error due to standard length (of tape).
 Due to manufacturing defects the absolute length of the tape may
be different from its designated or nominal length.
 Also with use the tape may stretch causing change in the length
and it is imperative that the tape is regularly checked under
standard conditions to determine its absolute length.

145
 Cont.
 The correction for absolute length or standardization is given by

Where ca = correction for measured length

c = the correction per tape length,
l = the designated or nominal length of the tape, and
L= the measured length of the line.

 If the absolute length is more than the nominal length, the sign
of the correction is positive and vice versa.

146
 Cont.
Eg.1. Real tape length = 29.99970m
Nominal tape length= 30m
Total measured length = 45m.
What is correction for absolute distance and corrected length?
Solution: ( (29.99970m-30m)/30m))45m = -0.00045m.
Corrected length = 45m – 0.00045m = 44.99955m.
2. A line AB between the stations A and B was measured as 348.28
using a 20 m tape, too short by 0.05 m. Determine the correct
length of AB.
c= -0.05m
l=20m
L=348.28m
The correct length of the line =348.28m-0.87m= 347.41m
147
 Correction for Temperature
 If the tape is used at a field temperature different from the
standardization temperature then, the temperature correction to the
measured length is

 Where α = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape,

tm = the mean field temperature, and
t0 = the standardization temperature.
 Note that the sign of the correction takes the sign of (tm- t0).

148
 Cont.
1. A steel tape is known to be 50 m long at 20C0. The Tape was used
to measure a line 532.28 m long at 35C0. The coefficient of
thermal expansion of a steel Tape (α) = 0.0000116/C0
Determine:
A. Whether the Tape is “too short” or “too long”? Too long
B. Ct per Tape length? 0.0087m
C. Ct total? 0.0926m
D. Corrected length of line? 532.373m

tm = 35C0 Total measured length of the line = 532.28m

t0 = 20C0 Per Tape length = 50m

149
 Correction for Pull or Tension
 If the pull applied to the tape in the field is different from the
standardization pull, the pull correction is to be applied to the
measured length. This correction is

Where,
P = the pull applied during the measurement, in newton's (N)
P0 = the standardization pull, in newton's (N)
A = the area of cross-section of the tape in cm2
E = the modulus of elasticity of the material of the tape in N/cm 2
 The sign of the correction is same as that of (P – P0)

150
 Correction for Sag
 The actual measurement distance may be shorter than the
measured length due to sagging of the tape because of its weight or
the wind.
 Typically, the tape is supported at ends only, but may also be
supported through out or at mid points.

151
 Cont.
 The tape hanging between two supports, free of ground, sags
under its own weight, with maximum dip occurring at the middle
of the tape. This necessitates a correction for sag if the tape has
been standardized on the flat, to reduce the curved length to the
chord length.
The correction for the sag is

Where, W = the weight of the tape per unit measure of tape.

(The sign of this correction is always negative)
 If both ends of the tape are not at the same level, a further
correction due to slope is required. It is given by

Where α = the angle of slope between the end supports.

152
 Correction for Slope
 If the length L is measured on the slope, it must be reduced to its
horizontal equivalent Lcos θ. The required slope correction is

Where θ = the angle of the slope, and

h = the difference in elevation of the ends of the tape.
The sign of this correction is always negative.

153
154
 4.1. 2 Indirect Methods of Distance Measurement

A. Tacheometry or Optical Method

 A special type of theodolite known as tachometer is used to
determine horizontal and vertical distances indirectly.
 In stadia tacheometry the line of sight of the tacheometer may be
kept horizontal or inclined depending upon the field conditions.
 In the case of horizontal line of sight, the horizontal distance
between the instrument at A and the staff at B is

Where,
k and c = the multiplying and additive constants of the
tacheometer,
s = the staff intercept, = ST – SB,
ST and SB are the top hair and bottom hair readings, respectively.
155
 Cont.
 Generally, the value of k and c are kept equal to 100 and 0 (zero),
respectively, for making the computations simpler. Thus
D = 100 s = horizontal distance.

156
 Cont.
 The elevations of the points, in this case, are obtained by
determining the height of instrument and taking the middle hair
reading.
Let hi = the height of the instrument axis above the ground at A,
hA, hB = the elevations of A and B respectively, and
SM = the middle hair reading
 Then, the height of instrument (HI) is
H.I. = hA + hi and
hB = H.I. – SM = hA + hi – SM this the vertical distance.

157
 Cont.
 In the case of inclined line of sight, the vertical angle is measured,
and the horizontal (D) and vertical distances (V) are determined
from the following formula.

the vertical angle α is

 The elevation of B is computed as below.
hB = hA + hi + V – SM

158
 Cont.
.

159
 4.2 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
 These devices measure lengths by indirectly determining the
number of full and partial waves of transmitted electromagnetic
energy required in traveling between the two ends of a line.
 In practice, the energy is transmitted from one end of the line to the
other and returned to the starting point; thus, it travels the double
path distance.
 Multiplying the total number of cycles by its wavelength and
dividing by 2, yields the unknown distance.
 Most of the modern EDM devices use a laser or infrared light
source to measure distance and angle up to ranges of 1000m.
 EDM instruments have microprocessors to produce horizontal
distance, difference in elevation, etc.
 The distances of 1-3 km can be measured with an accuracy of ± 5
mm 160
161
 Cont.
 An EDM measures the line of sight distance between the
instrument and reflector. This is a slope distance not horizontal
unless the EDM and reflector are at the same elevation.
 In order to determine a horizontal or vertical distance additional
information is needed.
 Combining an EDM with a digital theodolite results in a Total
Station Instrument (TSI).
 The TSI measures the slope distance and a zenith angle from
which it computes a horizontal and vertical distance

162
 Cont.
.

163
 CHAPTER FIVE
ANGLE MEASUREMENTS

164
 5.1 Angle Measurements in Surveying

 Angle is a number that indicates the size and direction of the

rotation between two convergent lines.
 Angles measured in surveying are classified as
 Horizontal angles
 Vertical angles

 Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines

frequently depends on the observation of angles and directions.
165
 Cont.
 In surveying, directions are given by azimuths and bearings.
 Horizontal angles are used for determining azimuths and bearing
in control surveys, for locating detail when mapping and for
setting out all types of structure.
 Vertical angles are used in trigonometric levelling, stadia
measurement and for reducing slope distance to Hz distance.
 Instruments used in angle measurements are
 Total Stations,
 Transits,
 Theodolites, and
 Compasses

166
 Cont.
Terms in angle measurement
 Horizontal Plane
 Vertical Plane
 Horizontal Angle
 Vertical Angle
 Line of Sight
 Zenith Angle

167
 Horizontal Angles
There are three basic requirements to determine an angle.
1. Reference or starting line,
2. Direction of turning, and
3. Angular distance (value of the angle).
 Bearings and azimuths are computing based on these three
elements.

168
 Kinds of Horizontal Angles
The Hz angles most commonly observed in surveying are
1. Interior angles: are observed on the inside of a closed polygon.
The sum of all interior angles in any polygon must equal to (n-
2)×180°, where n is the number of angles.
2. Exterior angles: located outside a closed polygon, the sum of the
interior and exterior angles at any station must equal to 360°. The
sum of the exterior angles for a closed-polygon is (n+2) ×180°.
Note: interior + exterior angles= n×360°.
3. Deflection angles: are observed from an extension of the back line
to the forward station. They are used principally on the long linear
alignments of route survey. Deflection angles may be observed to
the right (clockwise (+)) or to the left (counterclockwise (-))
depending on the direction of the route.
This angles are always <180°.
169
 Cont.

 1 & 3 = left deflection

 2 = right deflection 170
 Cont.
 Angles to the right are measured clockwise from the rear to the
forward station.
 Angles to the left, turned counterclockwise from the rear station.

Figure: Closed polygon. (a) Clockwise interior angles (angles to the

right). (b) Counterclockwise interior angles (angles to the left).
171
 Direction of a Line
 The direction of a line is defined by the horizontal angle between
the line and an arbitrarily chosen reference line called a meridian.
 Meridian can be classified as follows:
 True meridian: the north-south reference line that passes
through a mean position of the Earth’s geographic poles.
 Magnetic meridian: freely suspended magnetic needle that is
only influenced by the Earth’s magnetic field. Surveyors used a
compass to determine the direction of survey lines. Compasses
point to magnetic north, rather than true north.
 Assumed meridian : can be established by merely assigning
any arbitrary direction. for example, taking a certain street line
to be north. The directions of all other lines are then found in
relation to it.
172
 5.2. Total Station Instrument
 Total station instruments is a surveying equipment combination of
an electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument and an
electronic angle measuring component.
 It is also integrated with a computer or microprocessor, electronic
data collector and storage system.
 It consists of battery. A fully charged battery works for about 3 to
5 hours continuously.
 Total stations can read and record horizontal and vertical angles,
together with slope distances with a single set up.

173
 Functions Performed By Total Stations
 Total Stations, with their micro processors, can perform a variety
of functions and computations.
 Reducing slope distances to their horizontal and vertical
components.
 Computing coordinates of survey points from horizontal angle
and horizontal distance.
 Correcting electronically measured distances from prism
constant, atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity.
 Making curvature and refraction corrections to elevations
determine by trigonometric leveling.
 Displaying the results on a display (type LCD).
 Can also store the data, either on board or in external data
collectors connected to their communication ports.
174
 Accuracy of Total Station
 Although, accuracy of Total station depending upon the
instrument and varies from instrument to instrument it is extremely
accurate for measuring distances and angles.
1. The angular accuracy varies from 1″ to 20 ″.
2. Distance accuracy depends upon two factors.
a) Instrumental error which ranges from ±2mm to ±10mm.
b) Error due to the length of measurement.
It can be from ±2mm to ± 10mm per kilo meter.

175
 Accessories of Total Station
 Tribrach: consists of three screws for leveling, a circular level,
clamping device to secure the base of the Total station .
 Plumb bob: to center the instrument exactly on the station mark.
 Telescope: to focus the target.
 Tripod: is external accessory to support the instrument at about eye
height over survey marks.
 Reflectors: to take data or reading of position on it.

176
 Parts of Total Station
.

177
 Total Station Set Up Over Station
 Total station can accurately centering over a station mark either
using
 Optical plummet or
 Laser plummet

178
 Axes and Scales of Total Station
 Horizontal axis (H)
 Vertical axis (V)
 Line of collimation or the line of sight (S)
 Horizontal circle
 Vertical circle
 Instrumental center

179
Cont.

180
Cont.

V = Vertical Axis, H= Tilting Axis,

Z= Line of Sight

181
 Errors in Angle Measurements by Total Station
1. Instrumental errors
 Line of collimation is not being perpendicular to vertical axis
 Horizontal axis is not perpendicular to vertical axis
 Vertical axis is not plumb
 Imperfect graduation of vertical circle
 Imperfect graduation of horizontal scale
 Eccentricity of centers: exists if the geometric center of the
graduated horizontal (or vertical) circle does not coincide with its
center of rotation.

182
horizontal axis is not perpendicular to vertical axis

Line of collimation is not being perpendicular to horizontal axis (Hz-axes error).

Vertical axis is not plumb 183

 Cont.
2. Personal errors
 Inaccurate centering
 Inaccurate leveling
 Error in sighting and reading
3. Natural errors
 Unequal atmospheric refraction due to high temperature
 Unequal expansion of parts of telescope and circles due to
temperature changes
 Unequal settlement of tripod
 Wind producing vibrations

184
 Adjustment of Total Station
 Temporary adjustments: are adjustments which are required to be made
of every instrument stations set up before making observation.
 Setting up the Total station over the station
 Leveling
 Centering
 Focusing the eye piece
 Focusing the objective piece
 Permanent adjustments: to maintain the primary axes of Total station in
their correct geometrical relationship.
 Adjustments of the horizontal plate level
 Adjustments of the horizontal axis
 Adjustments of telescope
 Adjustments of telescope level
 Adjustment of vertical circle index
185
 Angle Observations Using Total Station

 Face Left (F.L.): normal observing angles where the vertical

circle is on the left of the observer (normal observation), face I
observation
 Face Right (F. R.): vertical circle is to the right side of the
observer (reverse observation), face II observation.
 Done by turning the telescope 180 and the total station 180 to
change the instrument to face right position at the end of
station and record the horizontal and vertical direction.
 For horizontal angle measurments
F.R reading - F.L reading = 180°
If the measurment is free from any error
186
 Cont.
 Examples of the horizontal angle face left and face right observation.

Instrument Target Horizontal Angle Simple Mean Reduced Mean

Station of face left
Face left Face right and face right

A 1010’20’’ 19010’14’’ 1010’17’’ 0000’00’’

S B 5119’23’’ 231’19’27’’ 5119’25’’ 4109’08’’

C 12023’44’’ 30023’46’’ 12023’45’’ 11013’30’’

FR – FL = 180
Simple Mean = (FR + FL  180) / 2
+ if FL > 180
- if FL < 180
187
 Measuring Vertical (or Zenith) Angle
 A vertical angel is the angel above or below a horizontal plane
through the point of observation.
 Angles above the horizontal plane. Plus angles or angles of
elevation.
 Angles below the horizontal plane. Minus angles or angles of
depression.
 Most total stations display zenith angle rather than vertical angle.

188
 Cont.
 A zenith angle is measured in a vertical plane from the zenith
(point directly overhead) to another point.
 The relationship between vertical angles and zenith angels using
direct (1) and reverse (2) mode is

1. FL vertical angle= 90 - zenith angle

2. FR vertical angle = FR zenith angle– 270

 For vertical angle measurment F.R reading + F.L reading = 360°

If the measurment is free from any errors
If there is an index error (i) then
F.L. + F.R. = 360° + 2i
Index error (i) = (F.L. + F.R - 360°)/2

189
 Cont.
 Measurement of a zenith angle in both positions of the telescope

190
 Vertical Angle Calculation

Inst. Target V- angle Reduced Reduced MEAN

Station Face Left Face Right
(RFL) (RFR)
Face left Face right

A 8510’01’’ 27450’05’’ 0449’59’’ 0450’05’’ 0450’02’’

S B 8933’06’’ 27026’50’’ 0026’54’’ 0026’50’’ 0026’52’’
C 9544’00’’ 26415’54’’ 0616’00’’ 0615’54’’ 0615’57’’

Reduced Face Left (RFL) = 90 - FL

Reduced Face Right (RFR) = FR – 270
Mean = (RFL + RFR) / 2

191
 5.3 Azimuth & Bearing in Surveying
1. Azimuth (W. C. B.)
 Azimuths are defined as horizontal angles that are measured from
the reference meridian in the clockwise direction. Azimuths are
also called a whole circle bearing (WCB) system.
 Azimuths are used in compass surveying, plane surveying, where
it is generally measured from the north.
 Ranges from 0 - 360and don’t require letters to identify the
quadrant.
 The forward direction of the line is given by the forward azimuth,
while the reverse direction of the line is given by the backward
azimuth.
 The forward azimuth is converted into back azimuth by adding or
subtracting 180 degrees.
 Every line has two direction (forward and backward).
 Forward and Backward Azimuth
If the azimuth of a line AB is measured from
• A towards B – Forward or Fore azimuth.
• B towards A - Backward or Back azimuth.

q -- Fore Azimuth of AB
 -- Back Azimuth of AB

Back Azimuth = Forward Az. 180

+ if Forward Az. <180
- if Forward Az. >180
 Bearings

 Bearing is defined as the acute horizontal angle that is measured

between the reference meridian and the given line.
 The angle of line is measured either from the north or south
whichever closer towards east or west in clockwise or
counterclockwise direction.
 Bearing (quadrantal bearing) of line ranges from 0 - 90.
 The angle is represented by N or S first followed by angle value
and E or W direction to shows the proper quadrant. E.g N70E,
S35E, S40W and N30W.
 Bearings are another system for designating directions of lines.

194
 Designation of Bearing

• The common systems of notation of bearing are.

– The whole Circle bearing system (W. C. B) or Azimuth system
– The Quadrantal bearing (Q.B) or Bearing system
 The Relationship between Azimuth and Bearing
.
 Cont.
 To convert from azimuths to bearings, first, determine the proper
quadrant letters.
Quadrant Quadrant Formula
letters
0 -90° I (NE) Bearing = Azimuth
90°-180° II (SE) Bearing = 180° - Azimuth
180°-270° III (SW) Bearing = Azimuth - 180°
270°-360° IV (NW) Bearing = 360° - Azimuth
Convert the following
1. The azimuth of a boundary line is 128 13’ 46’’. Bearing?
180 – 128 13’ 46’’ = 51 46’ 14’’ = S51 46’ 14 ’’E
2. The route of a boundary survey is N 3713 ’W. Azimuth?
360 -3713’ = 32247’
197
 Calculations of Angles from Azimuth and Bearing

 = 2- 1

 = 180 + 1- 2

 = 2- 1  = 1 + 2
 Calculations of Azimuths from Angles

Generally – If the labeling is counterclockwise

Azimuth = azimuth of previous line + the interior
2 = + 1 - 180 angle  180
3 = 2 +  - 180
4 = 3 +  - 180 + if the interior + previous azimuth < 180
- if the interior + previous azimuth > 180
5 = 4 +  + 180
 Azimuth Example
1. Find the azimuth BC, CD and DA, consider the angles are
measured to right in a closed polygon.

Line Internal Angles Adjusted Angles Azimuth Bearing

AB 121˚ 19ˊ 53ʺ 121˚ 19ˊ 51ʺ 140°45’10” S39°14’50”E

BC 77˚ 00ˊ 22ʺ 77˚ 00ˊ 20ʺ 37°45’30” N37°45’30”E
CD 91˚ 45ˊ51ʺ 91˚ 45ˊ49ʺ 309°31’19” N50°28’41”W
DA 69˚ 54ˊ 02ʺ 69˚ 54ˊ 00ʺ 199°25’19” S19°25’19”W
Check ∑=360˚00ˊ 08ʺ ∑=360˚00ˊ 00ʺ 140°45’10”

 Total angular error = 360˚00ˊ 08ʺ - 360˚ = +08ʺ

 Angular error per angle = 08ʺ/4 = +02ʺ
 Correction = - 02ʺ 200
 Computing Azimuths

1. If the computation is proceeding in counter clockwise manner,

add the interior angle to the back azimuth of the previous course.
Azimuth = azimuth of previous line + the interior angle 180
+ if the interior + previous azimuth < 180
- if the interior + previous azimuth > 180
2. If the computation is proceeding in clockwise manner, subtract
the interior angle to the back azimuth of the previous course.
Azimuth = azimuth of previous line + 180° - interior angle
The End

202