UNIT II

RELATIONAL MODEL AND SQL

Relational model concepts -- Integrity

constraints -- SQL Data manipulation – SQL

Data definition –Views -- SQL programming.

What is SQL?
• SQL is a database language designed for the retrieval and
management of data in a relational database.
• SQL is the standard language for database management. All the
RDBMS systems like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Postgres,
and SQL Server use SQL as their standard database language.
• SQL programming language uses various commands for different
operations.
• Why Use SQL?
• Here, are important reasons for using SQL
• It helps users to access data in the RDBMS system.
• It helps you to describe the data.
• It allows you to define the data in a database and manipulate
that specific data.
• With the help of SQL commands in DBMS, you can create
and drop databases and tables.
• SQL offers you to use the function in a database, create a view,
and stored procedure.
• You can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views.
• Brief History of SQL
• Here, are important landmarks from the history of SQL:
• 1970 – Dr. Edgar F. “Ted” Codd described a relational model for
databases.
• 1974 – Structured Query Language appeared.
• 1978 – IBM released a product called System/R.
• 1986 – IBM developed the prototype of a relational database, which
is standardized by ANSI.
• 1989- First ever version launched of SQL
• 1999 – SQL 3 launched with features like triggers, object-
orientation, etc.
• SQL2003- window functions, XML-related features, etc.
• SQL2006- Support for XML Query Language
• SQL2011-improved support for temporal databases
• Types of SQL
• Here are five types of widely used SQL queries.
• Data Definition Language (DDL) [structure]
• Data Manipulation Language (DML) [operation perform]
• Data Control Language(DCL) [control]
• Transaction Control Language(TCL) [all done]
• Data Query Language (DQL)
• What is DDL?
• Data Definition Language helps you to define the
database structure or schema. Let’s learn about DDL
commands with syntax.
• Four types of DDL commands in SQL are:
• CREATE
• DROP
• ALTER
• TRUNCATE
CREATE
• CREATE statements is used to define the database structure
schema:
Syntax:
• CREATE TABLE <TABLE NAME> ( <COLUMN NAME>
<DATA TYPE>, <COLUMN NAME> <DATA TYPE>,
<COLUMN NAME> <DATA TYPE>, <COLUMN NAME>
<DATA TYPE> );
Example
• Create a student table with columns student name and roll number.
• CREATE TABLE STUDENT (STUDENT_NAME
VARCHAR(30), ROLL_NUMBER INT );
DROP
• Drops commands remove tables and databases from RDBMS.

Syntax:
DROP TABLE <table_name>;
DROP DATABASE <database_name>;
DROP TABLE <index_name>;
ALTER
• Alters command allows you to alter the structure of the
database.
• Syntax:
• For adding a new column
• ALTER TABLE <table_name> ADD <column_name> For
renaming a table
• ALTER TABLE <table_name> RENAME To
<new_table_name >For modifying a column
• ALTER TABLE <table_name> MODIFY <column_name >
<data type >For deleting a column
• ALTER TABLE <table_name> DROP COLUMN
<column_name>
• TRUNCATE

• This command used to delete all the rows from the

table and free the space containing the table.

• Syntax:

• TRUNCATE TABLE <table name>

• What is Data Manipulation Language?
• Data Manipulation Language (DML) allows you to modify the
database instance by inserting, modifying, and deleting its
data. It is responsible for performing all types of data
modification in a database.
• There are three basic constructs which allow database program
and user to enter data and information are:
• Here are some important DML commands in SQL:
• INSERT
• UPDATE
• DELETE
INSERT:This is a statement is a SQL query. This command is
used to insert data into the row of a table.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN); Or INSERT INTO
TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);
For example:
INSERT INTO students (RollNo, FIrstName, LastName)
VALUES ('60', 'Tom', Erichsen');
• UPDATE
• This command is used to update or modify the
value of a column in the table.
• Syntax:
• UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1=
value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE
CONDITION] For example:
• UPDATE students SET FirstName = 'Jhon',
LastName= 'Wick' WHERE StudID = 3;
DELETE
• This command is used to remove one or more rows from a
table.
Syntax:
• DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

For example:
• DELETE FROM students WHERE FirstName = 'John';
What is DCL?

• DCL (Data Control Language) includes commands like

GRANT and REVOKE, which are useful to give “rights &

permissions.” Other permission controls parameters of the

database system.
Examples of DCL commands
• Commands that come under DCL:
• Grant
• Revoke
Grant
• This command is use to give user access privileges to a
database.
Syntax:
• GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO
SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER; For example:
• GRANT SELECT ON Users TO'Tom'@'localhost;
Revoke :

• It is useful to back permissions from the user.

Syntax:

• REVOKE privilege_nameON object_nameFROM {user_name |

PUBLIC |role_name}For example:

• REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON student FROM BCA, MCA;

What is TCL?
• Transaction control language or TCL commands deal with the
transaction within the database.
Commit
• This command is used to save all the transactions to the
database.
Syntax:
• Commit; For example:
• DELETE FROM Students WHERE RollNo =25; COMMIT;
Rollback
• Rollback command allows you to undo transactions that have not
already been saved to the database.
Syntax:
• ROLLBACK;
Example:
• DELETE FROM Students WHERE RollNo =25; SAVEPOINT
• This command helps you to sets a savepoint within a transaction.
Syntax:
• SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
Example:
• SAVEPOINT RollNo;
What is DQL?
• Data Query Language (DQL) is used to fetch the data from the
database. It uses only one command:
SELECT
• This command helps you to select the attribute based on the
condition described by the WHERE clause.
Syntax:
• SELECT expressions FROM TABLES WHERE conditions;
For example:
• SELECT FirstName FROM Student WHERE RollNo > 15;