DATABASE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Authors – Raghu Ramakrishna, Johannes Gehrke
Edition – 3
 Unit -1
• History of Database Systems, Database System Applications, database
System vs file System – View of Data – Data Abstraction –Instances and
Schemas – data Models – the ER Model – Relational Model – Other
Models
• Database Languages – DDL, DML –Transaction Management
• Database System Structure – Storage Manager – the Query Processor.
• Database design and E-R diagrams – Beyond E-R Design Entities,
Attributes and Entity sets – Relationships and Relationship sets –
Additional features of ER Model – Concept Design with the ER Model –
Conceptual Design for Large enterprises.
Introduction to DBMS
• The database management systems consists of two parts:
• Database and
• Management System

What is Database?
• To find out what database is, we have to start from data, which is the
basic building block of any DBMS.
• Data: Raw information, Facts, Figures, Statistics etc. having no
particular meaning [ e.g. 1, ABC, 10 etc]
• Record: collection of related data items. In the previous example the
three data items had no meaning. But if we organize them in the
following way, then they collectively represent meaningful
information.

• Table or Relation: Collections of related Records.

• The columns of this relation are called Fields,

Attributes or Domains.
• The rows are called Tuples or Records.
• Database: Collection of related relations. Consider the following
collection of tables:

Table 1 Table 2

These are called Related

collection. With this
information we can easily get
Table 3 the data of each individuals. For
Table 4
example
Que: “Which hostel does the
youngest student live in?”
• A database in a DBMS could be viewed by lots of different people
with different responsibilities as well as customers, who each need to
see different kinds of data. Each employee in the company will have
different levels of access to the database with their own customized
front-end application.
What is Management Systems?
• The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve
database information that is both convenient and efficient.
• The management system is important because without the existence of
some kind of rules and regulations it is not possible to maintain the
database.
• We have to select the particular attributes which should be included in
a particular table; the common attributes to create relationship between
two tables; if a new record has to be inserted or deleted then which
tables should have to be handled etc.
• These issues must be resolved by having some kind of rules to follow
in order to maintain the integrity of the database.
History of Database Systems
• In the early days, computer systems were designed to manage data in a
hierarchical or navigational manner, where data was stored in a tree-
like structure.
• This method of storing data was inefficient and difficult to use, as it
required a lot of manual effort to access and manage the data.

• In the late 1960s, The first general-purpose DBMS, designed

by Charles Bachman, was called the Integrated Data Store
(IDS) which was based on network data model for which he was
received the Turing Award (The most prestigious award which is
equivalent to Nobel prize in the field of Computer Science.).
• In the late 1970s, Mr. Edgar Codd proposed a new data representation
framework called the Relational Database Model. He won the 1981
Turing Award for his seminal work. This model was based on the
concept of a table, with rows representing individual records and
columns representing individual fields within those records. The
relational model allowed for more efficient storage and retrieval of
data and was easier to use than the hierarchical or navigational models.
• In the late 1980s IBM developed the Structured Query Language
(SQL) for relational databases. This system was designed to manage
large amounts of data and was used primarily in corporate and
government applications. SQL was adopted by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
• In the 1990s, object-oriented DBMS (OODBMS) emerged, which were
designed to store and manage complex data structures, such as
multimedia and other types of non-traditional data. These systems were
initially popular in research and academic environments, but their
adoption was limited in the commercial sector.
• In the 1997, XML applied to database processing. Many vendors begin to
integrate XML into DBMS products.
• In the 2000s, web-based applications and cloud computing became more
popular, and DBMS systems began to adapt to these new technologies.
New DBMS systems were developed to support distributed and web-
based applications, including NoSQL databases such as MongoDB and
Cassandra.
• Today, DBMS systems continue to evolve, with an emphasis on
scalability, performance, and support for cloud-based applications. Some
of the most popular DBMS systems in use today include Oracle,
Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MongoDB.
Database System Applications
Enterprise Information:
• Sales: For customer, product, and purchase information.
• Accounting: For payments, receipts, account balances, assets and other
accounting information.
• Human resources: For information about employees, salaries, payroll
taxes, and benefits, and for generation of paychecks.
• Manufacturing: For management of the supply chain and for tracking
production of items in factories, inventories of items in warehouses
and stores, and orders for items.
• Online retailers: For sales data noted above plus online order tracking,
generation of recommendation lists, and maintenance of online
product evaluations.
Database System Applications
Banking and Finance :
• Banking: For customer information, accounts, loans, and banking
transactions.
• Credit card transactions: For purchases on credit cards and generation of
monthly statements.
• Finance: For storing information about holdings, sales, and purchases of
financial instruments such as stocks and bonds.
• Universities: For student information, course registrations, and grades.
• Airlines: For reservations and schedule information. Airlines were among
the first to use databases in a geographically distributed manner.
• Telecommunication: For keeping records of calls made, generating
monthly bills, maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards, and storing
information about the communication networks.
Purpose of Database Systems
The purpose of database systems is to manage the following
insecurities:
• Data redundancy and Inconsistency,
• Difficulty in accessing data,
• Data Isolation,
• Atomicity of updates,
• Concurrent access,
• Security problems, and
• Supports multiple views of data.
• Avoid data redundancy and inconsistency: If there are multiple copies of the
same data, it just avoids it. It just maintains data in a single repository.
• Difficulty in accessing data: A database system can easily manage to access
data. Through different queries, it can access data from the database.
• Data Isolation: Data are isolated in several fields in the same database.
• Atomicity of updates: In case of power failure, the database might lose data.
So, this feature will automatically prevent data loss.
• Concurrent access: Users can have multiple access to the database at the same
time.
• Security problems: Database systems will make the restricted access. So, the
data will not be vulnerable.
• Supports multiple views of data: It can support multiple views of data to give
the required view as their needs. Only database admins can have a complete
view of the database. We cannot allow the end-users to have a view of
developers.
Database System vs File System
 Database System File System
DBMS is a collection of data. In DBMS, the user is not File system is a collection of data. In this system, the user
required to write the procedures. has to write the procedures for managing the database.
DBMS gives an abstract view of data that hides the File system provides the detail of the data representation
details and storage of data
DBMS provides a crash recovery mechanism i.e DBMS File system doesn't have a crash mechanism, i.e., if the
protects the user from the system failures system crashes while entering some data, then the content
of the file will lost.
A database management system is designed to A file-processing system is usually designed to allow one
coordinate multiple users accessing the same data at the or more programs to access different data files at the same
same time. time.
DBMS contains a wide variety of sophisticated File system can't efficiently store and retrieve the data.
techniques to store and retrieve the data.
DBMS takes care of Concurrent access of data using In the File system, concurrent access has many problems
some form of locking like redirecting the file while other deleting some
information or updating some information
Redundancy is control in DBMS Redundancy not control in file system
Unauthorized access is restricted and also provides back Not in the file system
up and recovery , security.
A dbms is designed to allow flexible access to data A file-processing system is designed to allow
predetermined access to data (i.e. compiled programs).
Advantages of a DBMS
1. Controlling Redundancy: Data redundancy refers to the duplication of data (i.e
storing same data multiple times)
2. Improved data sharing: allows a user to share the data in any number of
application programs
3. Data integrity: Integrity means that the data in the database is accurate. For
example: in customer database we can enforce an integrity that it must accept the
customer only from Noida and Meerut city
4. Security : The DBA can define authorization checks to be carried out whenever
access to sensitive data is attempted.
5. Data consistency : defined by a set of rules that ensure that all data points in the
database system are correctly read and accepted. This is achieved by making
rules.
6. Data independence : DBMS provides interface between the application program
and data. When one module is changed then it will not effect to the other modules.
View of Data
• A major purpose of a database system is to provide users with an
abstract view of the data. That is, the system hides certain details of
how the data are stored and maintained.
Data Abstraction:
Levels of Abstraction:
1. Physical Level (Internal Schema):
• The lowest level of abstraction describes how the data are actually
stored.
• It defines complex data structures in detail, so it is very complex to
understand, which is why it is kept hidden from the end user.
• Data Administrators (DBA) decide how to arrange data and where
to store data. The Data Administrator (DBA) is the person whose
role is to manage the data in the database at the physical or internal
level.
• There is a data center that securely stores the raw data in detail on
hard drives at this level
• Logical level (Conceptual schema):
• This level is the intermediate level of data abstraction and explains what data
is going to be stored in the database and what the relationship is between
them.
• It describes the structure of the entire data in the form of tables. The logical
level or conceptual level is less complex than the physical level.
• With the help of the logical level, Data Administrators (DBA) abstract data
from raw data present at the physical level.

• View Level (External Schema):

• View or External Level is the highest level of data abstraction. There are
different views at this level that define the parts of the overall data of the
database.
• This level is for the end-user interaction; at this level, end users can access the
data based on their queries.
For example:
A university organization may have
several such record types, including

• At the physical level, an instructor, department, or student record can be

described as a block of consecutive storage locations. Database administrators
may be aware of physical organization of the data.
• At the logical level, each such record is described by a type definition.
Programmers using a programming language work at this level of abstraction
• Finally,. At the view level, several views of the database are defined, and a
database user sees some or all of these views.
DBMS SCHEMA
• Design of a database is called the Schema
• Schema is a Logical representation and it defines the attributes of
tables in the database.
• Schema is only a structural view of a database and it doesn’t show the
data present in the those tables.
• For example: An Employee table in database exists with the following
attributes:
Employee (Emp_ID, Emp_Name, Emp_address, Emp_contact).
Course( Course_id, Course_name, department)
DBMS Instance
• Definition of instance: The data stored in database at a particular
moment of time is called instance of database. Database schema
defines the attributes in tables that belong to a particular database. The
value of these attributes at a moment of time is called the instance of
that database. For example:

Emp_ID Emp_Name Emp_address Emp_contact

101 Xyz Noida 1234567890
102 Abc Delhi 9080123431
Data Models
Data Model is a logical structure of Database. It describes the design of database to
reflect entities, attributes, relationship among data, constrains etc.
Types of Data Models
• Object based logical models
• E-R Model
• Object oriented model
• Physical Data Models
• Frame memory models
• Unifying model
• Record based logical models
• Relational Model
• Hierarchical model
• Network model
1. Object based logical models – Types of Data Model
1. Entity Relationship Model (ER Model):
1. ER diagram is used to represent logical structure of the database easily.
2. ER model develops a conceptual view of the data hence it can be used as
a blueprint to implement the database in the future.
3. Entity - Entity is an object and represented in rectangles in the ER
diagram. For example - Car, house, employee.
4. Entity Set - A set of the same type of entities is known as an entity set. For
example - Set of students studying in a college.
5. Attributes - Properties that define entities are called attributes. They are
represented by an ellipse shape.
6. Relationships - used to describe the association between entities. They are
represented as diamond or rhombus shapes in the ER diagram.
EXAMPLE:
2. Object Oriented Model:
• In this model, data is stored in the form of objects.
• The behavior of the object-oriented database model is just like
object-oriented programming.
• A very popular example of an Object Database management system
or ODBMS is MongoDB which is also a NoSQL database.
2. Record Based Data Model - Types of Data Model

• Like Object based model, they also describe data at the conceptual and
view levels. These models specify logical structure of database with
records, fields and attributes.

1. Relational Model:
1. This is the most widely accepted data model.
2. In this model, the database is represented as a collection of
relations in the form of rows and columns of a two-
dimensional table.
3. Each row is known as a tuple (a tuple contains all the data for an
individual record) while each column represents an attribute.
2. Hierarchical Model:
• In this data model, the data is organized in a hierarchical tree-like structure.
3. Network Model:
• Network Model is same as hierarchical model except that it has graph-like
structure rather than a tree-based structure. Unlike hierarchical model, this
model allows each record to have more than one parent record
3. Physical Data Models - Types of Data Model
1. Frame Memory Model:
• Frame memory is a virtual view of secondary storage that can be implemented
with reasonable overhead to support database record storage and accessing
requirements
2. Unifying Model:
• A unified data model brings together data from different sources and platforms
in one place so that all your data is considered when conducting analyses and
making decisions.
• Unified data is important because it enables you to look at every collected data
point so you can understand the entire data narrative.
Data Independence
• Data independence refers characteristic of being
able to modify the schema at one level of the
database system without altering the schema at the
next higher level.
Types of Data Independence:
1. Physical Data Independence: This is defined as
the ability to modify the physical schema of the
database without the modification causing any
changes in the logical/conceptual or
view/external level.
2. Logical Data Independence: Logical data
independence is the ability to modify logical
schema without causing any unwanted
modifications to the external schema or the
application programs to be rewritten.
Database Languages
• Database Language is a particular type of programming language used to define
and manipulate a database. Based on their application, database languages are
classified into four types: DDL, DML, DCL, and TCL. Database languages are
used to perform various critical tasks that help a database management system
function correctly.
1. Data Definition Language:
• Data definition language is used to store the information of metadata
like the number of tables and schemas, their names, indexes, columns
in each table, constraints, etc.
• Here are some tasks that come under DDL:
• Create: It is used to create objects in the database.
• Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
• Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.
• Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
• Rename: It is used to rename an object.
• Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.
2. Data Manipulation Language:
• DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. It is used for accessing
and manipulating data in a database. It handles user requests.
• Here are some tasks that come under DML:
• Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database
• Insert: It is used to insert data into a table
• Update: It is used to update existing data within a table
• Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.
• Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or update
operations
• Call: It is used to call a structured query language or a Java
subprogram
• Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data
• Lock Table: It controls concurrency.
3. Data Control Language:
• DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to retrieve the stored or
saved data.
• The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback parameters.
• Here are some tasks that come under DCL:
• Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database
• Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user

4. Transaction Control Language:

• TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML statement. TCL can be
grouped into a logical transaction.
• Here are some tasks that come under TCL:
• Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the database
• Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original since the last
Commit.
Database System

Structure
Database System Structure
• The typical structure of DBMS is based on Relational data model.
• The top part of the architecture shows. application interfaces used by
naive users, application programs created by application programmers,
query tools used by sophisticated users and administration tools used by
database administrator.
• A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of the
responsibilities of the overall system.
• The functional components of a database system can be broadly divided
into the storage manager and the query processor components.
• The storage manager is important because databases typically require a
large amount of storage space.
• The query processor is important because it helps the database system
simplify and facilitate access to data.
Two – tier architectures
• A two-tier architecture, also known as a
client-server architecture, consists of two
main layers: a client layer and a server layer.
• The client layer is responsible for interacting
with the user and presenting data to them,
while the server layer is responsible for
processing requests and managing the
application's data and business logic
Three – tier architectures
• A three-tier architecture, also known as a
multi-tier architecture, consists of three main
layers: a presentation layer, an application
layer, and a data layer.
• The presentation layer is responsible for
interacting with the user and presenting data
to them, the application layer is responsible
for processing requests and managing the
application's business logic, and the data
layer is responsible for managing the
application's data.
Query Processor: The interactive query processor helps the database
system to simplify and facilitate access to data. It consists of DDL
interpreter, DML compiler and query evaluation engine.
The following are various functionalities and components of query
process:
• DDL interpreter: This is basically a translator which interprets the
DDL statements in data dictionaries.
• DML compiler: It translates DML statements query language into an
evaluation plan. This plan consists of the instructions which query
evaluation engine understands.
• Query evaluation engine: It executes the low-level instructions
generated by the DML compiler.
Storage manager:
• The storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and
updating data in the database. The storage manager components
include
• Authorization and integrity manager: Validates the users who want
to access the data and tests for integrity constraints.
• Transaction manager: Ensures that the database remains in consistent
despite of system failures and concurrent transaction execution
proceeds without conflicting.
• File manager: Manages allocation of space on disk storage and
representation of the information on disk.
• Buffer manager: Manages the fetching of data from disk storage into
main memory. The buffer manager also decides what data to cache in
main memory. Buffer manager is a crucial part of database system.
Disk Storage: It contains the following components –
 Data Files: It stores the data.

 Data Dictionary: It contains the information about the structure of

any database object. It is the repository of information that governs
the metadata.
 Indices: It provides faster retrieval of data item.
Transaction Management
• A transaction is a set of logically related operations. For example,
you are transferring money from your bank account to your friend’s
account, the set of operations would be like this:
• Simple Transaction Example In DBMS we will
• 1. Read your account balance write like this
2. Deduct the amount from your balance
3. Write the remaining balance to your account
4. Read your friend’s account balance
5. Add the amount to his account balance
6. Write the new updated balance to his account
Query Processing in DBMS
• Query: A query is a kind of request that is sent to the data base for
retrieval data.
• Query Processing:
• Query processing is a process of translating a user query into an executable
form. It helps to retrieve the results from a database.
• In query processing, it converts the high-level query into a low-level query for
the database.
• The steps involved are:
• Parsing and Translation
• Optimization
• Evaluation
Steps in Query Processing
1. Parsing and Translation:
• The first step is Parsing and Translation. The fired queries undergo lexical,
syntactic, and semantic analysis.
• Essentially, the query gets broken down into different tokens and white spaces
are removed along with the comments (Lexical Analysis).
• In the next step, the query gets checked for the correctness, both syntax and
semantic wise. The query processor first checks the query if the rules of SQL
have been correctly followed or not (Syntactic Analysis).
• Finally, the query processor checks if the meaning of the query is right or not.
(Semantic Analysis).
Example: select emp_name from Employee where salary>10000;
The above query would be divided into the following tokens:
SELECT, emp_name, FROM, employee, WHERE, salary, >, 10000.

Relational Algebra
2.Optimization:
1. After doing query parsing, the DBMS starts finding the most efficient way
to execute the given query.
2. The optimization process follows some factors for the query. These factors
are indexing, joins, and other optimization mechanisms. So, query
optimization tells the DBMS what the best execution plan is for it. The main
goal of this step is to retrieve the required data with minimal cost in terms of
resources and time.
3. Evaluation:
• After finding the best execution plan, the DBMS starts the execution of the
optimized query. And it gives the results from the database.
• In this step, DBMS can perform operations on the data. These operations are
selecting the data, inserting something, updating the data, and so on.
Example:
Let's consider an example to show you the query processing steps. Suppose we have a
database with a table “student”. It contains the stud_id, first_name, last_name, and
ques_solved. The following SQL query is used to retrieve the names of all students
whose ques_solved is greater than 50:
select first_name, last_name from student where ques_solved >50;
Parsing: Firstly, the query will be parsed. This will also check whether the syntax is
correct or not. Then this query will be converted into a parse tree. This tree will look
like this:

+--- student
• Optimization:
• The DBMS determines the most efficient way to execute the query
by considering factors such as whether an index exists on the
ques_solved field. In this case, the DBMS might use an index on
the ques_solved field to efficiently retrieve the matching rows.

• Evaluation:
• The DBMS executes the optimized query. It retrieves the results
from the database. Then it returns the first_name and last_name of
all ninjas whose ques_solved is greater than 50.
Database Design - Entity Relationship(ER)
Modelling
Database design process can be divided into 6 steps. The ER model is
most relevant to the first three steps:
• Requirement Analysis : involves understanding user needs,
analyzing existing systems, and identifying frequent operations
for performance requirements.
• Conceptual database design: employed to create a broad
overview of the data and associated constraints for the database.
Typically, the (ER) model is used in this step.
• Logical database design: In this step we convert Conceptual
database design (ER) into a relational DBMS.
Database Design - Entity Relationship(ER)
Modelling
Beyond ER Design,
• Schema Refinement: involves analyzing the relations in the
relational database schema to identify and address potential issues
through a more objective and theory-guided process.
• Physical Database Design: It is important to consider anticipated
workloads in the database design process, refining it to meet
desired performance criteria
• Application and Security Design: This step involves recognizing
distinct user groups and their respective roles. It requires specifying
which parts of the database each group can access, implementing
restrictions to ensure authorized access, and safeguarding against
unauthorized access to sensitive areas.
ER (Entity Relationship ) Model
• ER model stands for an Entity-Relationship model. It is a high-level
data model. This model is used to define the data elements and
relationship for a specified system.
• It develops a conceptual design for the database. It also develops a
very simple and easy to design view of data.
• For example, Suppose we design a school database. In this database,
the student will be an entity with attributes like address, name, id, age,
etc.
ID Name

Student

Address Phn_No
Components of ER diagram
1. Entities: An entity is anything in the real world, such as an object,
class, person, or place.
Example:
STUDENT

• Entity set: is a group of entities of similar kinds. It can contain entities

with attributes that share similar values.

• Entity types: are the basic building blocks for describing the structure
of data
Types of Entity:
1. Strong Entity:
• A strong entity is not dependent on any other entity in the schema.
• A strong entity will always have a primary key.
• Strong entities are represented by a single rectangle.
• The relationship of two strong entities is represented by a single diamond.
2. Weak Entity:
• A weak entity is dependent on a strong entity to ensure its existence.
• A weak entity does not have any primary key.
• It instead has a partial discriminator key.
• A weak entity is represented by a double rectangle.
• The relation between one strong and one weak entity is represented by a
double diamond.
• This relationship is also known as identifying relationship.
2. Attributes:
• An attribute in an Entity-Relationship
Model describes the properties or
characteristics of an entity.
• It is represented by an oval or
ellipse shape in the ER diagram.
• Every oval shape represents one attribute
and is directly connected to its entity
which is in the rectangle in shape.
• For example, employee_id,
employe_name, Gender,
employee_age, Salary, and Mobile
no. are the attributes which define entity
type Employee
Types of attributes:
• Simple Attributes: Cannot be divided into sub-attributes. Also called
atomic
Example:

• Composite Attributes: {Set of simple attributes} + Subdivision.

Example: Name -> First_name, Last_name, Middle_name

Middle_Name
First_Name
Last_Name

Name
• Single Valued Attributes: Single-valued attributes are attributes that have only
one value for each instance of an entity and cannot store more than one value.
Example: Single-valued attributes are like your name – you can only have one
name, and it stays the same for you all your life.

• Multi Valued Attributes: An attribute -> Can store {Multiple Values} at a time
from a set of possible values.
• Derived attributes : Values that can be derived from other attributes
and are always dependent on other attributes for their value.

derived

• Stored attributes: Values of stored attributes remain constant and

fixed for an entity instance and also, and they help in deriving the
derived attributes.
Example: For example, the Age attribute can be derived from
the DOB attribute, and also, the DOB attribute has a fixed and constant
value throughout the life of an entity. Hence, the DOB attribute is a
stored attribute.
• Key Attributes: Attributes that serve as the primary key for an entity,
allowing us to uniquely identify an entity from a set of entities. {Unique
and Non-Repeating Value}.

• Complex Attributes: Formed by combining multi-valued & composite

attributes, resulting in a value with many sub-sections.
Multi-valued Attribute + Composite Attribute
Example:
Address attribute ( can have more than one address – multi valued
can be sub divided like city,street etc – composite)
Example
3. Relationships:
• The diamond shape showcases a relationship in the ER diagram.
• It depicts the relationship between two entities.

Types of Relationships:
• One to One relationship (1: 1) : When a single element of an entity is
associated with a single element of another entity, it is called a one-to-one
relationship.
• One to Many relationship (1: M): When a single element of an entity is
associated with more than one element of another entity, it is called a one-to-
many relationship.

• Many to One relationship (M: 1): When more than one element of an entity is
related to a single element of another entity, then it is called a many-to-one
relationship.

• Many to Many relationship (M: M): When more than one element of an entity
is associated with more than one element of another entity, this is called a many-
to-many relationship.
4. Relationship Set:
• A relationship set is a set of relationships of same type.
Example:

Degree of Relationship set:

Degree of Relationship set= No. of entity sets participating in a relationship set.
Types of Relationship Set:
• Unary relationship set
• Binary relationship set
• Ternary relationship set
• N – array relationship set
• Unary relationship set: Unary relationship set is a relationship set
where only one entity set participates in a relationship set.
Example: One person can marry only one person
one person can have only one name on the certificate

• Binary relationship set: a relationship set where two entity sets

participate in a relationship set.
Example: Student is enrolled in a course
• Ternary relationship set: a relationship set where three entity sets
participate in a relationship set.

• N- aray relationship set: a relationship set where ‘n’ entity sets

participate in a relationship set.
NOTATIONS OF ER DIAGRAM
Additional features of ER model
1. Key Constraints: A key in DBMS is an attribute or a set of attributes
that help to uniquely identify a tuple in a relation (or table). Keys are
also used to establish relationships between the different tables and
columns of a relational database. Individual values in a key are called
key values.
Super Key: A super key is a group of single or multiple keys which
identifies rows in a table.
• Example:
Emp_ID Emp_Name Emp_Aadhar Emp_Salary Emp_phone Emp_Email

101 HARI 0000000000 45000 123456 [email protected]

102 RAMU 1111111111 50000 543432 NULL
103 HARI 2222222222 45000 NULL [email protected]
104 RAJU 3333333333 47000 534332 [email protected]

{Emp_ID}, {Emp_ID, Emp_phone}, {Emp_Aadhar}

{Emp_ID, Emp_Name} , {Emp_ID, Emp_Salary}
{Emp_ID, Emp_Aadhar}, {Emp_ID,Emp_Name, Emp_Aadhar}
{Emp_ID,Emp_Name, Emp_Aadhar, Emp_Salary}
{Roll No}
{Phone}
{Roll No, Name}
{ Roll No, Name, Phone}
Candidate Keys: Minimal set of super Key. The candidate key is chosen
from the set of super keys.
• Example:
Emp_ID Emp_Name Emp_Aadhar Emp_Salary Emp_phone Emp_Email
101 HARI 0000000000 45000 123456 [email protected]
102 RAMU 1111111111 50000 543432 NULL
103 HARI 2222222222 45000 NULL [email protected]
104 RAJU 3333333333 47000 534332 [email protected]

• {Emp_ID}
• {Emp_Aadhar}
Example

The candidate keys Stud ID, Roll No., and Email allow us to identify
each student record individually.
Primary Key: Any key from the candidate key but it should be not null or
updated / combinations in candidate key.
• A value must be present in the Primary Key column, and the Primary Key
field cannot be left NULL.
• No two rows in the table may have the same values in that particular
column.
• No value can be changed or modified in this primary key column.
• Example:
Emp_ID Emp_Name Emp_Aadhar Emp_Salary Emp_phone Emp_Email

101 HARI 0000000000 45000 123456 [email protected]

102 RAMU 1111111111 50000 543432 NULL
103 HARI 2222222222 45000 NULL [email protected]
104 RAJU 3333333333 47000 534332 [email protected]

• {Emp_ID} / {Emp_Aadhar}
Alternate Key: An alternate is a secondary candidate key that is capable of
identifying a row uniquely. However, such a key is not used as a primary
key because, out of all the generated candidate keys, only one key is
selected as the primary key. Thus, the other remaining keys are known
as Alternate Keys or Secondary Keys.
Emp_ID Emp_Name Emp_Aadhar Emp_Salary Emp_phone Emp_Email

101 HARI 0000000000 45000 123456 [email protected]

102 RAMU 1111111111 50000 543432 NULL
103 HARI 2222222222 45000 NULL [email protected]
104 RAJU 3333333333 47000 534332 [email protected]

• If {Emp_ID} is a primary key then {Emp_Aadhar} is an alternate key

• If {Emp_Aadhar} is an primary key then {Emp_ID} is an alternate key
Example
Unique Key: A unique key is used to remove the duplicity of values in a
table. However, the usage of a primary key is the same, but there is a
difference between both keys. A primary key cannot take a NULL value,
but a unique key can have one NULL value as its value.

Emp_ID Emp_Name Emp_Aadhar Emp_Salary Emp_phone Emp_Email

101 HARI 0000000000 45000 123456 [email protected]

102 RAMU 1111111111 50000 543432 NULL
103 HARI 2222222222 45000 NULL [email protected]
104 RAJU 3333333333 47000 534332 [email protected]

Example:
• Emp_phone and Emp_Email can be unique key.
Foreign Key: A foreign key is different from a super key, candidate key
or primary key because a foreign key is the one that is used to link two
tables together or create connectivity between the two.
Student table Department table
Composite Key: Two or more attributes together form a composite key
that can uniquely identify a tuple in a table. We need to find out such
table columns combination that can form a candidate key and hence a
composite key.
Example:
Partial Key: The set of attributes that are used to uniquely identify a
weak entity set is called the Partial key. The partial Key of the weak
entity set is also known as a discriminator.

Example
EXAMPLE
Additional features of ER model
2. Participation Constraints:
• Total Participation: Each entity is involved in the relationship. Total
participation is represented by double lines.
• Partial Participation: Not all entities are involved in the relationship.
Partial participation is represented by single lines.
Additional features of ER model - 3. Generalization,
Specialization and Aggregation:

Generalization :
• Generalization is like a bottom-up approach in which two or more
entities of lower level combine to form a higher level entity if they
have some attributes in common.
• Generalization is more like subclass and superclass system, but the
only difference is the approach.
• In generalization, entities are combined to form a more generalized
entity, i.e., subclasses are combined to make a superclass.
Bottom- Up
Approach
Specialization:
• It’s a Top Down approach to design ER model where
subclasses of entity types are defined that inherits
attributes of another entity type.
• The entity type which passes on attributes to other entities
is called the super class of the specialization.
• In other words, Specialization is the process of classifying
class of objects into more specialized subclasses. It is a
conceptual refinement.
TOP- DOWN
Approach
Aggregation:
• Aggregation is an abstraction through which we can represent
relationships as a higher level entity.
• It is an abstraction concept for building composite objects from their
component objects.
• There is a limitation in ER modeling that we don’t have a way to
represent relationship among relationships.
• To overcome this limitation aggregation is the solution.
CONCEPTUAL DATABASE DESIGN WITH THE
ER MODEL
• Entity versus Attribute
• Entity versus Relationship
• Binary versus Ternary Relationships
• Aggregation versus Ternary Relationships