FCE 531: STRUCTURAL

DESIGN
LECTURE

TIMBER ENGINEERING
AND DESIGN
 Timber Design Data

Timber engineering and design requires the

following data to be known prior to the actual
design:
Species of timber
Stress grades for sawn members and laminated
timber
Manual and/or Mechanical grading
Moisture content of timber
 Mechanical Tests on Timber
• BS 373:1957 Methods of Testing small
clear specimens of timber

• Tensile test, Bending test, Compression

test and Shear test on small clear
specimens
 Codes for Timber Grading, and
Design
(i) BS 4978 for timber grading
(ii) BS 5268-Part 2: 2002; Structural use of
timber:. Code of practice for permissible
stress design, materials and workmanship:
(ii) EN 1995, Eurocode 5 -Design of timber
structures:
The overall aim of EN 1995 has been to incorporate
material specifications and design approaches from DD
ENV 1995-1-1, whilst maintaining a permissible stress
code with which designers, accustomed to BS 5268, will
feel familiar and be able to use without difficulty.
 Related Reference Codes
•BS 6399-1:1996, Loading for buildings — Part 1: Code of practice for dead
and imposed loads.
•BS 6399-2, Loading for buildings — Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads.
•BS 6399-3:1988, Loading for buildings — Part 3: Code of practice for
imposed roof loads.
•BS 6446:1997, Specification for manufacture of glued structural components
of timber and wood based panel products.
•BS 1202-1:1974, Specification for nails — Part 1: Steel nails.
•BS EN 386:1995, Glued laminated timber — Performance requirements and
minimum production requirements.
•BS EN 518:1995, Structural timber — Grading — Requirements for visual
strength grading standards.
•BS EN 519:1995, Structural timber — Grading — Requirements for machine
strength graded timber and grading machines.
 BS 5268-2: 2002
• The code provides guidance on:
The structural use of timber,
Glued laminated timber,
Plywood,
Other panel products in load-bearing members,
design of nailed, screwed, bolted, dowelled,
connectored and glued joints.
 Structural Unit
• Assembly of members forming the whole or
part of a framework:
truss,
prefabricated floor and wall,
 skeleton of a building
 a complete structure
• Joist and plank,
• Structural light framing,
• Light framing or stud
 Strength Class and Grading
• The material is first assigned to a strength
class, which depends on the grading;
• Grading is done in accordance with BS
4978, BS 5756, NLGA or NGRDL;
• Grading can also be in accordance with
the North American Machine Stress-
Rated (MSR) rules;
Grade stresses
 Grade Stress and Permissible
Stress
• Grade stress: Stress which can safely be
permanently sustained by material of a specific
section size and of a particular strength class
or species and grade;
• Permissible stress: Stress that can safely be
sustained by a structural material under a
particular condition
permissible stress = grade stress x appropriate
modification factors (for section size, service class
and loading)
 Classification of Timber
• Classification of timber is based on:
 Particular values of grade stress,
Modulus of elasticity
Density
 Properties of Timber
• Bending, tension and compression stresses and
the moduli of elasticity;
Dependent on section size and size related grade
effects;
• Modification of the grade stresses for section
sizes;
• Check for conditions for the applicability of
modification factors given in the appropriate
sections of BS 5268-2, or other conditions
(e.g. materials graded to North American MSR
rules 11).
 Stress Modification Factors
• Modification for section size,
• Modification for load-sharing systems
• Modification for service class and conditions
• Modification for loading
 Modification for Section Size
The bending, tension and compression stresses
and the moduli of elasticity given in BS 5268-2
are applicable to material:

a) 300 mm deep (or wide, for tension) if assigned to a

strength class or if graded in accordance with BS
4978, BS 5756 or NLGA or NGRDL joist and plank,
structural light framing, light framing or stud rules;

b) of the particular section size quoted if graded to

North American machine stress-rated (MSR) rules.
 Modification for Section Size
(cont’d)
Because the properties of timber are dependent
on section size and size related grade effects, the
grade stresses should be modified for section
sizes other than the sizes given in item a) above
by:
 The modification factors given in the appropriate
sections of BS 5268-2.
If material is graded to North American MSR
rules, the grade stresses should not be modified for
section size
 Modification Load-Sharing
Systems
• The grade stresses given in BS 5268-2 are
applicable to individual pieces of structural
timber.

• Where a number of pieces of timber at a

maximum spacing of 610 mm C/C act together
to support a common load, then some
modification of these stresses is permitted in
accordance with the appropriate sections of BS
5268-2.
 Modification for Loading
• Timber and wood-based materials can sustain
a much greater load for a period of a few
minutes than for a period of several years;
• The grade stresses and the joint strengths
given in BS 5268-2 are applicable to long-term
loading;
• Modification factors to grade stresses and the
joint loads may be increased for other
conditions of loading as per the appropriate
sections of BS 5268-2.
 Strength Class
Classification of timber is based on particular
values of grade stress, modulus of elasticity and
density
 Structural Design
Structural members should be so proportioned
that the stresses or deformation induced by all
relevant conditions of loading do not exceed the
permissible stresses or deformation limits for the
material or the service conditions, determined in
accordance with BS 5268-2.
 Target Size
•This term is used to indicate the size desired (at
20 % moisture content), and used, without
further modification, for design calculations

Note: The tolerance classes for use with the

target size are given in BS EN 336.
 Effective Cross-Section
For the purpose of calculating the strength of a
member at any section, the effective cross-
section should be taken as the target size (with
no adjustment for in-service moisture content)
less due allowance for the reduction in area
caused by sinkings, notches, bolt, dowel or
screw holes, mortices, etc., either at that section
or within such a distance from it as would affect
the strength at that section.
 Design Aspects for Structural
frameworks
• Centroidal lines
• Secondary stresses
• Provision of camber
•Floor and roof boarding
•Lateral distribution of load
• Joints in boarding
• Connector
• Connector axis
• Glued laminated member
• Principal member
• Steel dowels
 Design Aspects (cont’d)
•Centroidal lines: The design should take due account
of secondary moments induced by eccentricity if the
longitudinal axes of members do not intersect at joints.
•Secondary stresses: Many triangulated frameworks
have continuous members and rigid or partially rigid
joints. Due account should be taken of the secondary
stresses present in such frameworks.
• Provision of camber: Where deflection of the
framework would have an adverse effect on the function
or appearance of the structure, the designer should
specify any necessary camber.
 Floor and Roof Boarding
• Floor and roof boarding should be designed for the
uniformly distributed and concentrated imposed
loadings given in BS 6399-1. The concentrated load
should be considered to act over a 300 mm width of
boarding where the boards are tongued and grooved.

• On pitched roofs where the boarding is not tongued

and grooved the same rule should be applied.

• In all other instances the concentrated load should be

applied to a single board.
 Design Aspects (cont’d)
•Joints in boarding: Header joints should be staggered and
should bear directly on a supporting member with adequate
bearing thereon, unless end-matched and taken into account in
design.

•Connector: This is a device which when embedded in each or in

one of the contact faces of two members held together by a
connecting bolt, is capable of transmitting a load from one
member to another. NOTE Connectors generally consist of a
metal plate, disc or ring.

•Connector axis: Line joining the centres of a pair of adjacent

connectors located on the same surface
 Design Aspects (cont’d)
•Glued laminated member: Timber structural
member obtained by gluing together a number of
laminations having their grain essentially
parallel

•Principal member: Individual member on

which the integrity of the structure depends.
Note: An example of a principal member is
a trimmer beam.
 Symbols
The following symbols apply:
a distance;
A area;
b breadth of beam; thickness of
web; lesser transverse
dimension of a
tension or
compression member;
d diameter;
E modulus of elasticity
 Symbols (cont’d)
F force or load;
h depth of member, greater
transverse dimension of a
tension or
compression member;
i radius of gyration;
K modification factor (always
with a subscript);
L length; span;
m mass;
 Symbols (cont’d)
M bending moment;
N number;
R radius of curvature;
t thickness; thickness of laminations;
u fastener slip;
.
 Symbols (cont’d)
α angle between the direction of the
load and the direction of the grain;
η eccentricity factor;
ɵ angle between the longitudinal axis
of a member and a connector axis;
 slenderness ratio;
 stress;
 shear stress;
 moisture content
 Subscripts used in Symbols
The subscripts used are based on:
Type of force, stress, etc.:
c compression;
m bending;
t tension;
Significance:
a applied;
adm permissible;
e effective;
Geometry:
apex apex;
r radial;
tang tangential;
ǁ parallel (to the grain);
┴ perpendicular (to the grain);
α angle.
 Subscripts used in Symbols
•It is recommended that where more than one
subscript is used, the categories should be
separated by commas.

•Subscripts may be omitted when the context in

which the symbols are used is unambiguous
except in the case of modification factor, K.
 Timber Grades
• The grading system referred to in BS 4978
defines two visual and four machine grades,
i.e. GS, SS, GS, M50, MSS and M75.

• This superseded the previous system based on

the numbered visual grades 75, 65, 50 and 40
to which no reference remains in BS 5268.
 Grade Stresses for Strength
Classes
• Designs should be based either on the stresses for the
strength classes, or on those for the individual species
and grades

• Grade stresses for service classes 1 and 2 are given in

Table 8 for 16 strength classes;

• Grade stresses for individual softwood and hardwood

species and grades are given in Table 9, Table 10,
Table 11, Table 12, Table 13, Table 14 and Table 15.
 Grade Stresses for Strength
Classes (cont’d)
• Because it is difficult to dry thick timber, service
class 3 stresses and moduli should normally be used
for solid timber members more than 100 mm thick,
unless they are specially dried.

• For designs based on strength classes, the material

specification should indicate the strength class,
whether softwood or hardwood, or, if the choice of
material is limited by factors other than strength, the
particular species required.
 Grade Stresses for Strength
Classes (cont’d)
• The species and visual grades which meet the
requirements of the strength classes are given
in Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6
and Table 7.

• Machine graded timber, meeting the

requirements of BS EN 519, is graded directly
to the strength class boundaries and marked
accordingly.
 Grade Stresses for Strength
Classes (cont’d)
• A species and grade combination is assigned to a
strength class if the bending stress, mean modulus of
elasticity and characteristic density (as defined in BS
EN 338) for the combination, and appropriate to a
depth (or width for tension) of 300 mm, are not less
than the class values.
• The use of the lowest strength class or strength grade
may not result in the most economical design, and
reference should be made to commercial sources for
information on the availability, grades, quantities,
dimensions and costs of particular specifications .
 Kenya Standard
• KS02-771:1991: Kenya Standard
Specification for Softwood Timber
Grades for structural use

• Timber Stresses – Seasoned Cypress

 Bending Compression Tension
parallel to gain parallel to parallel to
N/mm2 grain grain
N/mm2 N/mm2

Grade 1 8.8 7.35 5.9

Grade 2 5.9 4.4 2.9
Grade 3 4.4 2.9 1.47
Modulus of Mean = Emean=8500N/mm2
elasticity Min = Emin=4000N/mm2
Density =500 Kg/mm3
 Summary of Timber Design
Process
Designs should be based either on the stresses
for the strength classes, or on those for the
individual species and grades.

 Computation of the loading;

 Choice of timber dimensions;
 Calculation of effective cross section;
 Calculation of the member forces in the structure;
 Determination of the basic grade stresses in the timber;
depending on whether it is in bending, compression or
tension;
 Checking the adequacy of specific members.
 Adequacy Check of Specific
Design Elements
· Grade stresses in sawn timber · Nailed joints
· Grade stresses in horizontally · Screwed joints
laminated members · Bolted joints
· Grade stresses in vertically laminated · Connectored joints
beams · Glued joints
· End joints
· Group of timbers
· Flexural members
· Compression members
· Tension members
· Curved members
· Structural frameworks
· Floor and roof boarding
· Joints in general
 Design of Timber to BS 5268-2
•Table 1 — Moisture content of timber related to
service class

•Table 2 — Softwood combinations of species

and visual grade which satisfy the requirements
for various strength classes. Timber graded in
accordance with BS 4978

•Tables 3-15 give values of grade stresses for

North American Softwoods and hardwoods.
 Permissible Stresses
Permissible stress = Ki x Basic stress

Where Ki = modification factor depending

on particular conditions of service and
loading.
 Modification Factor K12 for
Duration of Loading
Applicable to flexural members and
members in tension
Duration of loading Value of K12
Long term (e.g. dead + permanent imposed) 1.00
Medium term (e.g. dead + snow, dead + temporary loads) 1.25
Short term (e.g. dead + imposed+ wind,, dead + imposed + snow + 1.5
wind)
 Other Modification Factors
• Table 16 — Modification factor, K2, by which stresses and moduli for service
classes 1 and 2 should be multiplied to obtain stresses and moduli applicable to
service class 3
• Table 17 — Modification factor, K3, for duration of loading
• Table 18 — Modification factor, K4, for bearing stress
• Table 19 — Maximum depth to breadth ratios (solid and laminated members)
• Table 20 — Modification factor, K9, used to modify the minimum modulus of
elasticity for trimmer joists and lintels
• Table 21 — Effective length of compression members
• Table 22 — Modification factor, K12, for compression members
• Table 23 — Modification factor, K13, for the effective length of spaced columns
• Table 24 — Modification factors, K15, K16, K17, K18, K19 and K20, for single
grade glued laminated members and horizontally glued laminated beams
• Table 25 — Modification factors, K27, K28 and K29, for vertically glued
laminated members
• Table 26 — Modification factors, K30, K31 and K32, for individually designed
glued end joints in horizontally glued laminated members
 Summary of Modification
Factors
1 K1, K2 etc.: load increase or reduction factors
2 Load sharing increase factor (1.1) is constant
· When a member shares a load with another
3 When to use Emin or Emax. When a member is isolated e.g. Edge of a staircase use
Emin when a member is part of other members use Emax
4 Use of equivalent U.D.L. (We) when there are different loading patterns
5 Use of green stresses when the section is more than 100mm thick. This is because
the moisture content may be high and the section may be prone to shrinkage.
6 K12- duration of loading factors. For roofing use medium terms.
· For members supporting floors, use long term.
· K18- load duration for modification for softwoods.
· K19- load duration modification factor for high grade soft and hardwoods.
7 Method of obtaining maximum bending moments in non-symmetrically loaded
simply supported beams is done by breaking down the load patterns and summating
the maximum centre span moments for these patterns from standard tables.