Computer Networks

(B22CI0502)
Prof. Shreedhar B
School of Computing & Information Technology
Chapter 1:Introduction to Data
Communication and Networking

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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

1. Internet history and Internet today

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INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

1. Internet history

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NETWORK

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DATA COMMUNICATION

 Data communications are the exchange of data between

two devices via some form of transmission medium such
as a wire cable.
 Components of Data Communication:
1.Message
2.Sender
3.Receiver
4.Transmission Medium
5.Protocol

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DATA FLOW

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DATA REPRESENTATION

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NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

1. Why & What is Topology?

2. Requirements
 Ease
 Understandability
 Tracking
 Accountability

3. Types of Topologies

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NETWORKS

1. A set of devices (nodes) connected by communication links.

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TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LAN, WAN, MAN AND PAN

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PROTOCOLS

• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data

communications. A protocol defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol:
1.Syntax
2.Semantics
3.Timing

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STANDARDS

• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,

government agencies, and other service providers to
ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's
marketplace and in international communications.
• Categories:
1. De facto: Standards that have not been approved by an
organized body
2. De Jure: Standards that have been legislated by an
officially recognized body

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Chapter 2: Layered
Architectures
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LAYERED TASKS

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THE OSI MODEL

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OSI EXCHANGE DIAGRAM

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DATA REPRESENTATION IN OSI

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PHYSICAL LAYER (LAYER-1)
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one
hop (node) to the next
Responsibilities:
• Representation of bits
• Data rate.
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration.
• Physical topology
• Transmission mode

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DATA LINK LAYER(LAYER 2)

The datalink layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next
Responsibilities
• Framing.
• Physical addressing.
• Flow control.
• Error control.
• Access control.

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 NETWORK LAYER(LAYER-3)

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Responsibilities

• Logical addressing.

• Routing

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TRANSPORT LAYER (LAYER-4)

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one
process to another
Responsibilities
• Service-point addressing.
• Segmentation and reassembly.
• Connection control.
• Flow control.
• Error control.

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SESSION LAYER( LAYER -5 )

The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

Responsibilities

• Dialog control.

• Synchronization

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PRESENTATION LAYER(LAYER-
6)
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and
encryption.
Responsibilities
• Translation.
• Encryption.
• Compression.

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APPLICATION LAYER (LAYER 7)

The application layer enables the user to access the network. It

provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail,
remote file access and transfer etc.
Responsibilities
• Network virtual terminal
• File transfer, access, and management
• Mail services
• Directory services

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL

1. Protocol Suite
It’s a collection of protocols that are designed to work together
2. Protocol Stacks / layered protocol stacks.
3. Layers
1. 7 layer in OSI model.
2. TCP/IP protocol suite uses a 4 layer model

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ADDRESSING

16
bit

32
bit

Lowest-Level
Address-48 bit
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Chapter 3: Introduction to
Switching
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INTRODUCTION TO SWITCHING
• A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called
switches.
• Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices linked to the switch.

Classification of Switched
Networks
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CIRCUIT SWITCHED NETWORKS:
• Circuit-Switched Network – a type of network where the communications
between end devices (nodes) must be set up before they can communicate.
Once set up, the “circuit” is dedicated to the two nodes it connects for the
duration of that connection.
• An example of a circuit-switched network is an analog telephone network

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DATAGRAM NETWORKING:
A datagram is a basic transfer unit associated with a packet-switched
network. Datagrams are typically structured in header and payload sections.
Datagrams provide a connectionless communication service across a packet-
switched network.

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VIRTUAL CIRCUIT NETWORK
• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched
network and a datagram network. It has some characteristics of
both.
• A virtual circuit (VC) is a means of transporting data over a
packet-switched network in such a way that it appears as
though there is a dedicated physical link between the source and
destination end systems of this data.

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Chapter 4: Physical Layer

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA
• Analog data: Information that is continuous
• Digital data: Information that has discrete states

ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

• Analog Signals: infinitely many levels of intensity over a
period of time
• Digital Signals: limited number of defined values

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PERIODIC AND NONPERIODIC SIGNALS

• Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or nonperiodic
(aperiodic)
• A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a
period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods.
• The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.
• A nonperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats
over time.
• In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and
nonperiodic digital signals.

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PHYSICAL LAYER – PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

• Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.

• A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into
simpler signals.
• A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
• The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog
signal.
• A sine wave can be represented by three parameters:
• Peak amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase

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PHYSICAL LAYER – PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
• Peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest
intensity
• Period : The amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to
complete 1 cycle.
• Frequency : The number of periods in 1s.
• Period is the inverse of frequency, and frequency is the inverse of
period, as the following formulas show

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PHYSICAL LAYER – PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

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PHYSICAL LAYER – PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
• Phase (⏀):- Phase is a measure of the relative position in time within a
single period of a signal. i.e., phase describes the position of the
waveform relative to time 0. Phase is measured in degrees or radians.

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DIGITAL SIGNALS

A digital signal is a signal that is being used to represent data as a

sequence of discrete values; at any given time it can only take on, at
most, one of a finite number of values.

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ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA

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TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS

• Signals travel through transmission media, which

are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment.

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1.ATTENUATION

• Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the

strength of a signal. Attenuation occurs with any type of signal,
whether digital or analog.
• Sometimes called loss.
• To show the loss or gain of energy the unit “decibel” is used.

dB = 10log10P2/P1
P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal

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2. DISTORTION

• The signal changes its form or shape.

• Differences in delay may cause a difference in phase.

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3.NOISE

• Noise is another cause of impairment.

• Types of Noise
a. Thermal noise
b. Induced noise
c. Crosstalk
d. Impulse noise

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SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (SNR)

• A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise;

a low SNR means the signal is more corrupted by noise.

• Because SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often

described in decibel units, SNRdB, defined as

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DATA RATE LIMITS

• Data rate depends on three factors:

1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

• Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate

the data rate:
• Nyquist for a noiseless channel
• Shannon for a noisy channel. 56
NOISELESS CHANNEL: NYQUIST BIT RATE

• For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula

defines the theoretical maximum bit rate

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NYQUIST BIT RATE - EXAMPLE

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NOISY CHANNEL: SHANNON CAPACITY
• The formula defines a characteristic of the channel, not
the method of transmission.

• The formula defines a characteristic of the channel, not the

method of transmission.

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PERFORMANCE

1. Bandwidth:
• Bandwidth in Hertz – Range of frequencies in a composite
signal
• Bandwidth in Bits per Second – No. of bits per second that a
channel or network can transmit
2. Throughput: How fast we can actually send the data
3. Latency (Delay) : Time taken for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination.
4. Jitter: Variation in time delay between when a signal is sent and
received over a network.

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TRANSMISSION MODES

• The transmission of binary data across a link can be

accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.

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PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

1. Advantage:
• Speed
• Disadvantage:
• Cost
• Used for short distance

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SERIAL TRANSMISSION

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DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

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AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK)

• The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create

signal elements. Both frequency and phase remain
constant while the amplitude changes
• Binary ASK

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FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK)

• The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the

duration of one signal element, but changes for the next
signal element if the data element changes. Both peak
amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal
elements.

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PHASE SHIFT KEYING (PSK)

• The phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more

different signal elements. Both peak amplitude and
frequency remain constant as the phase changes.

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ANALOG MODULATION
TECHNIQUES

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QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (QAM)

• The idea of using two carriers, one in-phase and the

other quadrature, with different amplitude levels for
each

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ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
• A process of converting analog data into digital data is
known as digitization.
• The device used for converting analog data into digital
form for transmission at sender, and subsequently
recovering the original analog data from the digital at
receiver, is known as a codec (coder-decoder)
• Two Techniques:
1. Pulse Code Modulation
2. Delta Modulation

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PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)

 The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data

(digitization) is called pulse code modulation (PCM).
 A PCM encoder has three processes

1) Sampling
2) Quantization
3) Encoding

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1. SAMPLING
 The analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where Ts is the sample
interval or period.
 The Inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling rate
or sampling frequency
 The sampling process is sometimes referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM)

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SAMPLING RATE

• According to the Nyquist theorem, to reproduce the original analog

signal, one necessary condition is that the sampling rate be at least
twice the highest frequency in the original signal.

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2. QUANTIZATION
1) We assume that the original analog-signal has amplitudes between Vmin & Vmax.

2) We divide the range into L zones, each of height Δ(delta).

where L = number of levels.
3) We assign quantized values of 0 to (L-1) to the midpoint of each zone.
4) We approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized values.

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QUANTIZATION AND ENCODING OF A SAMPLED SIGNAL

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3. ENCODING

 The quantized values are encoded as n-bit code word.

 The bit-rate is given by:

Bit rate = sampling rate * number of bits per sample = nb x fs

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DELTA MODULATION (DM)
 PCM is a very complex technique. Other techniques have been developed to reduce
the complexity of PCM.
 The simplest is delta modulation.
 PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample; DM finds the change
from the previous sample

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MODULATOR

 The modulator is used at the sender site to create a stream of bits from
an analog signal.
 The process records the small positive or negative changes, called delta
δ. If the delta is positive, the process records a 1; if it is negative, the
process records a 0.

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DEMODULATOR
 The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase maker and the delay
unit, creates the analog signal.
 The created analog signal, however, needs to pass through a low-pass filter for
smoothing.

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ANALOG-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

 Representation of analog information by an analog signal.

 Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways:

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AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM)
• The carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with
the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal.
• The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same; only the amplitude
changes to follow variations in the information

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FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)
 The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the
information signal changes, the frequency of the carrier changes correspondingly i.e., when
amplitude of information signal is high the frequency of the carrier signal is high and vice versa.
 The bandwidth requirement for frequency modulation(FM) is higher than AM and PM.

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PHASE MODULATION (PM)
 In PM transmission, the frequency along with phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the
changing voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating signal.
 The peak amplitude of the carrier signal remain constant, the frequency is high at the starting and
ending of the signal and phase of the signal also changes as the amplitude of the information signal
changes, the carrier changes correspondingly.

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INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION MEDIA

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CLASSES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

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GUIDED MEDIA: TWISTED-PAIR CABLE

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GUIDED MEDIA: COAXIAL CABLE

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GUIDED MEDIA: FIBER OPTIC CABLE

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UNGUIDED MEDIA: RADIO WAVES

 Omni directional antenna.

 Frequencies between 3KHZ to 1GHZ.
 Radio waves are used for multicast
communications, such as radio and television,
and paging systems.

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UNGUIDED MEDIA: MICRO WAVES

 Unidirectional.

 Frequency between 1GHZ to 300GHZ.

 There are two types data communication. Terrestrial and Satellite

 Used for one to one communication between sender and receiver.

 Example:-cellular phone ,GPS

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UNGUIDED MEDIA: INFRARED

• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz

to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm),
can be used for short-range communication.
• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls

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THANK YOU

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