Module-2:Transformers

2.1 Development of equivalent circuit of transformer and its approximation

2.2 Phasor Diagram for No-load and On-Load Single phase transformers.
2.3 Losses in transformer and Determination of efficiency (Related Numericals)
2.4 OC and SC test, Sumpner’s test (Theoretical approach)
2.5 Transformer connection for three phase operation – star/star, delta/delta, star/delta, zigzag/star and V/V,
choice of connection
 Introduction
A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction between
two (or more) coupled circuits or coils.
According to this principle, an e.m.f. is induced in a coil if it links a changing flux.

The current in the primary is assumed to flow in primary

winding,
The e.m.f. induced in turns must be in such a direction as to
oppose the cause, i.e. as per Lenz’s law.
Therefore, the direction of is as shown in phasor diagram and
it is seen to oppose
 Ideal transformer on no load
 The magnetising current Im produces an
alternating flux ϕm which is proportional to and
in phase with it.
 This alternating flux (ϕm) links the primary and
secondary windings magnetically and induces
EMF E1 in the primary winding and EMF E2 in the
secondary winding.

Practical transformer on no load

 the input power at no-load in a practical
transformer is equal to the iron losses in the
core of the transformer i.e.
 Also, at no-load, there is no current flowing in
the secondary winding. Hence, E2 = V2.
IW=core loss component(supplies total losses under no
load also called as wattful component)
Im=magnetising component(required to produce
flux in core, also called as wattless component
 Transformer on load
 When the transformer is on the loaded condition,
the secondary of the transformer is connected to
load.
 The load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive.
The current I2 flows through the secondary winding
of the transformer.
 The magnitude of the secondary current depends
on the terminal voltage V2 and the load impedance.
 The phase angle between the secondary current
and Balancing
M.M.F voltage depends on the nature
on load(operation of the load.
of transformer during loading)
When transformer is loaded there exists secondary mmf due to which secondary current sets up its own flux .
This flux opposes the main flux which is produced in core due to magnetising component of no load current. The flux
momentarily reduces the main flux due to which primary induced emf also reduces. Hence vector difference in voltage
increases due to which primary draws more current from the supply. This additional current drawn by primary is due to
load hence it is called load component primary current denoted as . This current is in antiphase with .
The current sets up its own flux which opposes and helps main flux . This flux neutralises the flux produced by . The
mmf i.e. ampere turns balances the ampere turns . Hence the net flux in the core again maintained at constant level.
 2.1 Development of equivalent circuit of transformer and its approximation
1.Equivalent Resistance
 The resistance of two windings can be transferred to any one side either primary or secondary without affecting the
performance of transformer.
 The transfer of the resistances on any one side is advantageous as it makes calculations easier.
 Equivalent resistance of secondary referred to primary
 Equivalent resistance of primary referred to secondary
2.3 Losses in transformer and Determination of efficiency (Related Numericals)
2.4 OC and SC test, Sumpner’s test (Theoretical approach)
2.5 Transformer connection for three phase operation – star/star, delta/delta,
star/delta, zigzag/star and V/V, choice of connection
Losses in Transformer

There are mainly two kinds of losses in Transformer

1. Core losses
2. Copper losses(ohmic losses)
 Core losses: The core loss occurring in the transformer core material, consists of two components,
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss i.e.

i) Hysteresis loss :-
Hysteresis loss due to repeated magnetization and
demagnetization in transformer core. The energy is lost in each
hysteresis cycle.
During magnetization and demagnetization ,due to hysteresis
effect some energy losses in the core takes place called
hysteresis loss
ii) Eddy current losses():-
 a phenomenon that occurs when a conductor is exposed to a varying magnetic field, resulting in
the generation of circulating currents within the conductor.
 In transformer, the leakage magnetic flux linked with the conducting parts like steel core or iron
body of transformer, which will result in induced emf in those parts, causing small circulating
current in them.
 This current is called eddy current, due to these eddy current some energy will be dissipated in
the form of heat

 Both hysteresis and eddy current losses not vary as load

changes, hence Core losses are called constant losses in
transformer
 Copper losses(ohmic losses):- when the transformer is loaded, ohmic losses() occurs in both
primary and secondary winding resistances.
These losses are depend on load current hence these are called variable losses.

Efficiency of transformer:
Efficiency of transformer given by;

=total core loss

=total homic losses
=output VA
=load p.f
2
=fraction of load 𝑃 𝑐𝑢 =𝑛 𝑃 𝑐𝑢 ¿
 Maximum efficiency
condition for maximum efficiency is given by
Core losses= Copper losses

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴𝑎𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥.𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦=𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐾𝑉𝐴×

𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐹 . 𝐿𝐶𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 √ When both Iron
losses and Cu losses
Known

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥 .𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ( 𝐼 2 ) =𝐼 2𝐹 . 𝐿 ×

√ 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐹 . 𝐿𝐶𝑢 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑥 .𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝐼 2)=

√ 𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑒 2 When both winding
resistances are given
2
𝑅 𝑒2 = 𝑅2 + 𝐾 𝑅1
 OC-Test
 The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through ammeter,
wattmeter and variac. The secondary of transformer is kept open. Usually low
voltage side is used as primary and high voltage side as secondary to conduct
O.C. test.
 The primary is excited by rated voltage, which is adjusted precisely with the
help of a variac. The wattmeter measures input power. The ammeter
measures input current. The voltmeter gives the value of rated primary
voltage applied at rated frequency.
 voltmeter may be connected across secondary to measure secondary voltage
which is when primary is supplied with rated voltage. As voltmeter resistance
is very high, though voltmeter is connected, secondary is treated to be open
circuit as voltmeter current is always negligibly small.
 When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with the help of variac,
readings of ammeter and wattmeter are to be recorded.
As secondary is open, . Thus reflected current on primary is also zero
So primary current .
The transformer no load current is always very small, hardly 2 to 4% of its full
load value Thus the total copper losses in O.C. test are negligibly small.
Hence iron losses are at rated voltage. As output power is zero and copper
losses are very low, the total input power is used to supply iron losses. This
power is measured by the wattmeter

𝑊0
 SC-Test
o As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very very small and
on rated voltage it may draw very large current. Such large
current can cause overheating and burning of the
transformer.
o To limit this short circuit current, primary is supplied with
low voltage which is just enough to cause rated current to
flow through primary which can be observed on an
ammeter.
o The low voltage can be adjusted with the help of variac.
Hence this test is also called low voltage test or reduced
voltage test. The wattmeter reading as well as voltmeter,
ammeter readings are recorded.
o Now the currents flowing through the windings are rated 𝑊 𝑠𝑐
currents hence the total copper loss is full load copper loss.
Now the voltage applied is low which is a small fraction of
the rated voltage. The iron losses are function of applied
voltage.

 For a step up transformer, primary is LV and secondary is HV

In SC test, supply is given to HV winding and LV side is shorted
 Sumpener’s Test

 The full load test on a small transformer is very

convenient, but on the large transformer, it is very
difficult.
 The maximum temperature rise in a large
transformer is determined by the full load test. This
test is called, back-to-back test, regenerative test or
Sumpner’s test.
 This test is used to determine temperature rise,
efficiency and voltage regulation, when the
transformer is fully loaded.
 In this test, two identical transformers are taken, in
which primary windings are connected in parallel
whereas secondary windings are connected in series
but in phase opposition.
 It is assumed that voltage across ab is zero and the two
secondaries are in phase opposition.
 Now a voltage is injected in the secondary circuit by means of a
voltage regulator, fed from the source connected to the
primaries or from a separate source.
 The injected voltage is adjusted till rated current flows in the two
series-connected secondaries
 It may be seen that the reading of voltmeter V₂ is equal to the
sum of leakage impedance drops in both the transformers. The
low-injected voltage has given rise to full load currents in primary
and secondary windings,
 therefore, the full load ohmic losses of both the transformers
are measured by the wattmeter W₂ (Fig. 1.38). If Pc and Pse are
the core and ohmic losses in each transformer, then the reading
of wattmeter W₁ = 2Pc, and that of wattmeter W2 = 2Psc.
Transformer connection for three phase operation
1. Star/Star
• In this type of connection, both the primary and
secondary windings are connected in star
• This connection proves to be economical for
small high voltage transformers as phase voltage
is 1/√3 times that of line voltage, the number of
turns per phase and the quantity of insulation
required is minimum

• It can be noted that there is a phase shift of 30 between the phase voltages and line
voltages on both primary and secondary side.
• The line voltages on both sides and the primary voltages are in phase with each other.
Advantages:

1. Due to star connection, phase voltage is 1/√3 times that of line voltage. Hence less number of turns
are required. Also the stress on insulation is less. This makes the connection economical for small
high voltage purposes.
2. phase current is same as line current. Hence windings have to carry high currents. This makes cross
section of the windings high. Thus the windings are mechanically strong and windings can bear
heavy loads and short circuit.
3. There is no phase shift between the primary and secondary voltages.
4. As neutral is available, it is suitable for three phase, four wire system.

Disadvantages:
5. If the load on the secondary side is unbalanced then the performance of this connection is not
satisfactory then the shifting of neutral point is possible. To prevent this, star point of the primary is
required to be connected to the star point of the generator.
6. Even though the star or neutral point of the primary is earthed, the third harmonic present in the
alternator voltage may appear on the secondary side. This causes distortion in the secondary phase
voltages.
 2. Delta/Delta

• In this type of connection, both the primary and

secondary windings are connected in delta
• This connection proves to be economical for
large low voltage transformers as it increases
number of turns per phase.
 Advantages:

1. In order to get secondary voltage as sinusoidal, the magnetizing current of transformer must
contain a third harmonic component. The delta connection provides a closed path for circulation of
third harmonic component of current. The flux remains sinusoidal which results in sinusoidal
voltages.
2. Due to delta connection, phase voltage is same as line voltage hence windings have more number
of turns. But phase current is 1/√3 times the line current. Hence the cross section of the windings
is very less. This makes the connection economical for low voltage transformers.
3. Even if the load is unbalanced the three phase voltages remain constant. Thus it allows unbalanced
loading also.
4. The important advantage with this type of connection is that if there is bank of single phase
transformers connected in delta-delta fashion and if one of the transformers is disabled then the
supply can be continued with remaining two transformers of course with reduced efficiency.
Disadvantages:
5. Due to absence of neutral point, this type is not suitable for three phase, four wire system.
 3. Star/Delta
• In this type of connection, both the primary
connected in star fashion while secondary windings
are connected in delta fashion.
• This connection commonly employed at substation
end of the transmission line.
• The main use of this connection is to step down the
voltage.
• Neutral available on primary side is grounded.
• It can be seen that there is phase difference of 30
between primary and secondary voltages.

phase shift of 30 lead a phase shift of 30° lag. This

called +30° connection is called – 30° connection.
connection.
Advantages

1. The primary side is star connected. Hence fewer number of turns are required. This makes the connection
economical for large high voltage step down power transformers.
2. The neutral available on the primary can be earthed to avoid distortion.
3. Large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactorily.

Disadvantage

4. In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary. Hence it is not possible
to operate this connection in parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected transformer
 zigzag connection
• The zigzag connection of tranformer is also called the
interconnected star connection. This connection has
some of the features of the Y and the ∆ connections,
combining the advantages of both.
• The zigzag transformer contains six coils on three cores.
The first coil on each core is connected contrariwise to
the second coil on the next core. The second coils are
then all tied together to form the neutral and the phases
are connected to the primary coils.
• One coil is the outer coil and the other is the inner coil.
Each coil has the same number of windings turns (Turns
ratio=1:1) but they are wound in opposite directions.
• Typical zig-zag transformers do not have a
secondary winding and exhibit useful winding
connections that only allow the flow of currents
that are in phase through the neutral. They may
be three-phase transformers or a bank of three
single-phase units.
• The zig-zag arrangement is the most common
because of its lower cost and the ability of the
iron core design to limit the flow of the triple-
harmonic fluxes. Zig-zag transformers are
smaller in size than wye-delta transformers for
the same zero-sequence impedance.
Thank you
1.23 1.24