18csc303j -Database

Management Systems

13/12/2024 1
Outline of the Presentation
S-1 SLO-1 : Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL
SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique,
not null, check, IN operator
S-3 SLO-1 : Functions-aggregation functions
SLO-2 : Built-in Functions- Numeric, Date, String functions, Set operations
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.
S-6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Sub Queries, correlated sub queries
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
S-8 SLO-1 : Transaction Control Commands
SLO-2 : Commit, Rollback, Savepoint
S-9-10 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab 8: Set Operators & Views.
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions Triggers and Exceptional Handling
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing
S-14-15SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Lab9: PL/SQL Conditional and Iterative Statements

13/12/2024 2
S-1 SLO-1 : Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL

Structured Query Language ( SQL)

 SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in
1986, and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987
 Common language for all Databases
 Fourth generation Language
 Non procedural Language
 Commands like an normal English statements
 SQL is not a case sensitive language
 All SQL statements should ended with terminator , the default terminator is
semi-colon (;)
 Based on the operation SQL divided into three categories
– DDL ( Data Definition Language)
– DML ( Data Manipulation Language)
– DCL ( Data Control Language)

13/12/2024 3
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

Data Definition Language (DDL)

 DDL is the subset of SQL and part of DBMS

 DDL relates only with base tables structure and it is no where relates with the
information stored in the table.

 Note : All the DDL command statements are AUTO COMMIT Statements

 DDL consists of the following commands

– CREATE

– ALTER

– DROP

– TRUNCATE
13/12/2024 4
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation
Data Definition Language (DDL)
CREATE COMMAND
Used to create a new object / schema with a defined structure
Syntax :
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);
Example :

CREATE TABLE EMP

(EMPNO NUMBER(4) NOT NULL, ENAME VARCHAR2(10), JOB VARCHAR2(9),
MGR NUMBER(4), HIREDATE DATE, SAL NUMBER(7, 2), COMM NUMBER(7, 2),
DEPTNO NUMBER(2));

13/12/2024 5
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

Data Definition Language (DDL)

ALTER COMMAND
 Alter command used to modify the base table structure
 Using this command
– a new column can be added with restrictions
– column data width can be increased / decreased with
restrictions
– a column can be dropped
 Two key words are using in this command
– ADD
– MODIFY

13/12/2024 6
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation
Data Definition Language (DDL)
ALTER COMMAND
SYNTAX

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD / MODIFY column_name datatype;

EXAMPLE 1: To add a new column in a table

ALTER TABLE emp ADD phone_no number(10);

EXAMPLE 2 : TO modify the existing column data width

ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY phone_no number(13);

13/12/2024 7
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

Data Definition Language (DDL)

ALTER COMMAND

Syntax to DROP a column

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP column column_name;

Example :

ALTER TABLE emp DROP column phone_no;

13/12/2024 8
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

Data Definition Language (DDL)

DROP COMMAND
It is used to remove the base table with records (information) from database
permanently.

Syntax:

DROP TABLE table_name ;

Example:

DROP TABLE emp;

13/12/2024 9
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

TRUNCATE COMMAND
Truncate command used to delete the records (information) from the
base table permanently and keeps the structure of the base table
alone

Syntax:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:

TRUNCATE TABLE emp;

13/12/2024 10
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

DML Commands are relates only with base table information ( value in an attribute)
There are four commands in DML:

1. INSERT

2. UPDATE

3. DELETE

4. SELECT

Where clause ( Conditional retrieval )

Order by clause ( Retrieval in Ascending or Descending Order )

Group by clause ( Retrieval of distinct values by considering

groups )
Having clause ( Followed by Group by clause with COUNT
function )
13/12/2024 11
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

INSERT COMMAND
 It relates only with new records.
 Only one row can be inserted at a time
 Multiple rows can be inserted using “&” symbol one by one
 Can insert to entire table
 Can insert in selected columns with some restrictions
 Must follow the order of the column specified in the query statement

13/12/2024 12
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

INSERT COMMAND

Syntax:

INSERT INTO <table_name> (column_name1 <datatype>,

column_name2 <datatype>,
...,
column_name_n <datatype>)
VALUES Note :
(value1,
 Number values can be
value2,
inserted as integer or
..., float
value n);
 Char and Date values
must be in single quote

13/12/2024 13
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

INSERT COMMAND

Example 1: To insert a record using all fields in EMP table

INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (7369, 'SMITH', 'CLERK', 7902, '17-12-1980‘, 800, NULL,
20);
(OR)
INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO,ENAME,JOB,MGR,HIREDATE,SAL,COMM,DEPTNO)
VALUES (7369, 'SMITH', 'CLERK', 7902, '17-12-1980', 800, NULL, 20);

Example 2: To insert a record using selected fields in EMP table

INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, ENAME) VALUES (7499, 'ALLEN);

Note : When a record is inserted using selected fields, it must include

NOT NULL and Primary key fields. 14
13/12/2024
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

Example 3: To insert multiple records using all fields in EMP table

INSERT INTO EMP values

(&EMPNO,’&ENAME’,’&JOB’,&MGR,’&HIREDATE’,&SAL,&COMM,&DEPTNO) ;

NOTE : ‘&’ (Ampersand) symbol used to ask

Enter value for followed by the string during runtime.

The input value will be store in the appropriate field using bind
variable ( :OLD and :NEW)

13/12/2024 15
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

Update command
 It works with only existing records
 It works only column wise
 It is used to modify the column values ( increase / decrease / change)
Syntax
UPDATE <table_name> set <field_name> = value [ where <condition>];

Note : Update command without where condition will update all the records.
Update command with where condition will update the records which are satisfy
the condition
Example 1:
UPDATE emp set comm = 2000 ; ( Update all the records in EMP table )
Example 2 :
Update emp set comm = 1000 where empno = 7369;
(Update the records having the empno as 7369)

13/12/2024 16
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

Delete command
 It works only with existing records
 It works only with row wise
 It not possible to delete a single column in a row
Syntax
DELETE from <table_name> [ where <condition>];
Note : Delete command with out where condition will delete all the records in the table.
Delete command with where condition will delete the selected records which
are
satisfy the condition.
Example 1: DELETE from emp; ( All records will be deleted from emp )
Example 2: DELETE from emp where empno = 7369;
( Those records holding the value in the field empno as 7369 will be
deleted )

13/12/2024 17
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

SELECT COMMAND

 Works with existing records

 Works with row wise and column wise

 Works with multiple tables

 Never affect / change / update / modification in the data

base
 Using this command , we can select a column , multiple
columns, all columns, single row, multiple row, all rows
 Specially called as “QUERY STATEMENT”

13/12/2024 18
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

SELECT COMMAND
Syntax
SELECT column_list FROM table-name
[WHERE Clause]
[GROUP BY clause]
[HAVING clause]
[ORDER BY clause];

NOTE : To retrieve all the column from the table ‘ * ’ symbol can be
used instead of specifying the column_list.

13/12/2024 19
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

SELECT COMMAND
Example 1: To retrieve all the columns and rows from emp table
SELECT * from emp; ( ‘*’ stands from all columns and rows )

Example 2: To select retrieve the specific columns from all rows

SELECT empno,ename from emp;

Select command with where clause

Example 3: To retrieve the records from emp table which record holds the salary value
greater than 1000;
SELECT * from emp WHERE sal> 1000;

Example 4: To retrieve the columns empno and ename from emp table which records
holds the value as CLERK in job column.
SELECT empno, ename from emp WHERE job = ‘CLERK’
13/12/2024 20
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

SELECT COMMAND
Select command with order by clause
Example 5 : To retrieve the records from emp table in
ascending order using empno
SELECT * from emp order by empno asc;
(OR)
SELECT * from emp order by empno;
Example 6: To retrieve the records from emp table in
ascending order using job and empno
SELECT * from emp order by job,empno asc;
(OR)
SELECT * from emp order by job,empno;
NOTE : Ascending order is default condition, no need to specify
13/12/2024 21
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

SELECT COMMAND
Select command with order by clause

Example 7 : To retrieve the records from emp table in descending order using
empno.
SELECT * from emp order by empno desc;

Example 8: To retrieve the records from emp table in descending order using job
and empno
SELECT * from emp order by job desc,empno desc;

Example 8: To retrieve the records from emp table in ascending order using job
and descending order empno
SELECT * from emp order by job asc,empno desc;
13/12/2024 22
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

SELECT COMMAND
Select command with group by clause
Example 9: To retrieve the different jobs from emp table
SELECT job from emp group by job;
Example 10: To retrieve the different jobs and its average salary from emp
table
SELECT job, avg(sal) from emp group by job;

Select command with group by and having clause

Example 11: To retrieve the different jobs from emp table where the total
numbers in a group is greater than 2;
SELECT job from emp group by job having count(job) >2;
NOTE : Count is built-in group function

13/12/2024 23
S-1 SLO-2 : Structure Creation, alternation

Data Control Languages

Used to give / get back / control the privileges of an object by the owner
GRANT : To give access privileges of an object to other user by the owner

Syntax : GRANT [ ALL / INSERT /UPDATE /DELETE /SELECT ]

on <OBJECT_NAME> to <USER_NAME>;

Example: GRANT all on emp to scott;

REVOKE : To get back all the privileges from the user who has been granted

Syntax : REVOKE [ ALL / INSERT /UPDATE /DELETE /SELECT ]

on <OBJECT_NAME> from <USER_NAME>;

Example: REVOKE all on emp from scott;

13/12/2024 24
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Constraint
 Purpose
Use a constraint to define an integrity constraint--a rule that
restricts the values in a database.
Oracle Database lets you create five types of constraints and lets
you declare them in two ways.
 There five types of integrity constraint
• NOT NULL constraint
• Unique constraint
• Primary key constraint
• Foreign key constraint
• Check constraint

13/12/2024 25
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator

General Syntax for Constraints:

13/12/2024 26
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Not Null Constraint
 NOT NULL constraint prohibits a database value from being null.

 Permits duplicate values

 To satisfy a NOT NULL constraint, every row in the table must contain a value for the
column.
 For example: Every user should have a username. So we would define the "Username"
column as NOT NULL

Restrictions on NOT NULL Constraints

 NOT NULL constraints are subject to the following restrictions:

 You cannot specify NULL or NOT NULL in a view constraint.

 You cannot specify NULL or NOT NULL for an attribute of an object. Instead, use
a CHECK constraint with the IS [NOT] NULL condition.
13/12/2024 27
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Syntax for Not Null constraint
Create table <table_name> ( column_1 datatype Constraint <constraint_name>
<constraint_type>,
column_2 datatype,
………..
……….
column_n datatype);
Example
Create table emp ( empno number constraint my_cons_NN not null,
ename varchar2(10), sal number(10), dept varchar2(10));

Note : Constraints may specified without name also, in that case system
automatically assign some random name.
Create table emp ( empno number(10) not null, ename varchar2(10),
sal number(10), dept varchar2(10));
13/12/2024 28
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator

Unique Constraint
 A unique constraint designates a column as a unique key.
 A composite unique key designates a combination of columns as the
unique key.
 To satisfy a unique constraint, no two rows in the table can have the
same value for the unique key.
 Unique constraint allows null values and it allows more number of null
values (Two null values are always not equal ).

13/12/2024 29
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator

Restrictions on Unique Constraint

 None of the columns in the unique key can be of
LOB, LONG, LONG RAW, VARRAY, NESTED TABLE, OBJECT, REF, or
user-defined type.
 A composite unique key cannot have more than 32 columns.
 You cannot designate the same column or combination of columns
as both a primary key and a unique key.
 You cannot specify a unique key when creating a subview in an
inheritance hierarchy. The unique key can be specified only for the
top-level (root) view.

13/12/2024 30
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Syntax for unique constraint

Create table <table_name> ( column_1 datatype Constraint <constraint_name>

<constraint_type>, column_2 datatype,
………..
……….
column_n datatype);
Example

Create table emp ( empno number(10) constraint my_cons_UK unique,

ename varchar2(10), sal number(10), dept varchar2(10));

Example for Composite Unique Key

Create table emp ( empno number(10), ename varchar2(10), sal

number(10), dept varchar2(10), Constraint my_unique_key unique (empno,ename));
13/12/2024 31
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator

Primary Key
 A primary key constraint designates a column as the primary key of
a table or view.
 A composite primary key designates a combination of columns as
the primary key.
 A primary key constraint combines a NOT NULL and unique
constraint in one declaration
 Therefore, to satisfy a primary key constraint:
• No primary key value can appear in more than one row in the
table.
• No column that is part of the primary key can contain a null.

13/12/2024 32
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Restrictions on Primary Key Constraints
 A table or view can have only one primary key.
 None of the columns in the primary key can be LOB , LONG , LONG RAW , VARRAY,
NESTED TABLE , BFILE, REF, TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE, or user-defined type.
 The size of the primary key cannot exceed approximately one database block.
 A composite primary key cannot have more than 32 columns.
 You cannot designate the same column or combination of columns as both a
primary key and a unique key.

13/12/2024 33
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Syntax for Primary key constraint

Create table <table_name> ( column_1 datatype Constraint

<constraint_name> <constraint_type>, column_2 datatype,
………..
……….
column_n datatype);
Example

Create table emp ( empno number(10) constraint my_cons_PK primary key,

ename varchar2(10), sal number(10), dept varchar2(10));

Example for composite primary key

Create table emp ( empno number(10, ename varchar2(10),

sal number(10), dept varchar2(10),
constraint my_cons_CPK primary key (empno,dept));
13/12/2024 34
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Foreign key constraint
 A foreign key constraint (also called a referential integrity constraint) designates a
column as the foreign key and establishes a relationship between that foreign key and a
specified primary or unique key, called the referenced key.

 A composite foreign key designates a combination of columns as the foreign key.

 The table or view containing the foreign key is called the child object, and the table or
view containing the referenced key is called the parent object.

 The foreign key and the referenced key can be in the same table or view.

 To satisfy a composite foreign key constraint, the composite foreign key must refer to a
composite unique key or a composite primary key in the parent table or view, or the
value of at least one of the columns of the foreign key must be null.

 You can define multiple foreign keys in a table or view

13/12/2024 35
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Restrictions on Foreign Key Constraints

 None of the columns in the foreign key can be of

LOB, LONG, LONG RAW, VARRAY, NESTED TABLE, BFILE, REF,
TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE, or user-defined type.

 The referenced unique or primary key constraint on the parent table or

view must already be defined.

 A composite foreign key cannot have more than 32 columns.

 The child and parent tables must be on the same database.

13/12/2024 36
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Syntax for Foreign Key
CREATE TABLE <child_table_name> ( column_1 datatype,
column_1 datatype ,
-------
Dept_id references <parent_table_name>
(Parent_table_Primary key));
Example
CREATE TABLE emp ( empno number (10) Primary key,
ename varchar2(25),
salary number(10,2),
dept_id references DEPT (DEPT_ID));

An entity emp created with foreign key constraint referencing dept entity
primary key attribute dept_id.

13/12/2024 37
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Check Constraint

 A check constraint lets you specify a condition that each row in the table must satisfy.

 To satisfy the constraint, each row in the table must make the condition either TRUE or

NULL

Restrictions on Check Constraints

 You cannot specify a check constraint for a view.

 The condition of a check constraint can refer to any column in the table, but it cannot

refer to columns of other tables.

13/12/2024 38
S-2 SLO-1 & SLO-2: Defining Constraints-Primary Key,
Foreign Key, Unique, Not null, Check, IN operator
Syntax for Check Constraint
Create table <table_name> ( column_1 datatype Constraint <constraint_name>
<constraint_type> (condition),
column_2 datatype,
………..
……….
column_n datatype);
Example
Create table emp ( empno number(10) , ename varchar2(10),
sal number(10) constraint my_cons_ck (sal
>10000) dept varchar2(10));

13/12/2024 39
S3 SLO-1 : Functions - aggregation functions

Aggregation Functions
 MAX – To find the number of the maximum values in the SQL table.
 MIN – Number of the minimum values in the table.
 COUNT – Get the number of count values in the SQL table.
 AVG – Find average values in the SQL table.
 SUM – Return the summation of all non-null values in the SQL table.
 DISTINCT – Return the distinct values of a column.

13/12/2024 40
S3 SLO-1 : Functions - aggregation functions

Note : For all the examples , consider the “EMP” Table

 Max Function
Syntax: Max( Column_name)
Example : Select max(sal) from emp;

 Min Function
Syntax : Min(Column_name)
Example : Select min(sal) from emp;

 Avg Function
Syntax : Avg( Column_name)
Example : Select avg(sal) from emp;

13/12/2024 41
S3 SLO-1 : Functions - aggregation functions

 Sum Function
Syntax : Sum(Column_name)
Example : Select sum(sal) from emp;
 Count Function
Syntax : Count(Column_name)
Example : Select count(sal) from emp;

Note : (1) When Count (*) is used , it will count the number of
rows using rowid value ( Rowid is the unique id and it is
a 16bit hexa decimal number for all the rows
assigned at the time of creation)
(2) When Count (Column_name) is used, it will count the
number of values in a specified column except null values
13/12/2024 42
S3 SLO-1 : Functions - aggregation functions

 Distinct Function
Syntax : Distinct ( Column_name)
Example : Select distinct (job) from emp;

 STDDEV Function
Syntax : Stddev ( Column_name)
Example : Select stddev(sal) from emp;

 Variance Function
Syntax : Variance (Coulmn_name)
Example : Select variance (sal) from emp;

13/12/2024 43
S3 SLO-1 : Functions - aggregation functions
Some more examples using EMP table
 Select sum(sal), avg(sal), min(sal), max(sal) from emp;

 Select Job, sum(sal) from emp group by job;

 Select Job, count(job) from emp group by job;

 Select job, avg(sal), max(sal),min(sal) from emp group by job;

 Select distinct (job) from emp;

 Select count(*) from emp;

 Select count(comm) from emp;

 Select count(sal) from emp;

 Select stddev(sal) from emp;

 select variance(sal) from emp;

13/12/2024 44
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Numeric Functions
Functions Value Returned Example
Abs(n) Absolute value of n Select abs(-15) from dual;
Ceil(n) Smallest int >= n Select ceil(33.645) from dual;
Cos(n) Cosine of n Select cos(180) from dual;
Cosh(n) Hyperbolic cosine of n Select cosh(0) from dual;
Exp(n) en Select exp(2) from dual;
Floor(n) Largest int <= n Select floor(100.2) from dual;
Ln(n) Natural log of n (base e) Select ln(5) from dual;
Log(b,n) Log n base b Select log(2,64) from dual;

Mod(m,n) Remainder of m divided by n Select mod(17,3) from dual;

13/12/2024 45
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Numeric Functions
Functions Value Returned Example
Power(m,n) m power n Select power(5,3) from dual;

Round(m,n) m rounded to n decimal places Select round(125.67854,2) from dual;

Sign(n) If n<0, -1 if n=0, 0 otherwise 1. Select sin(-19) from dual;

Sin(n) Sin of n Select sin(90) from dual;

Sinh(n) Hyperbolic sin of n Select sinh(45) from dual;

Sqrt(n) Square root of n Select sqrt(7) from dual;

Tan(n) Tangent of n Select tan(45) from dual;

Tanh(n) Hyperbolic tangent of n Select tanh(60) from dual;

Trunc(m,n) m truncated to n decimal places Select trunc(125.5764,2) from dual;

13/12/2024 46
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Date Functions
Functions Value Returned Example

add_months(d,n) ‘n’ months added to date ‘d’. Select add_months(sysdate,2) from dual;

last_day(d) Date corresponding to the last Select last_day(sysdate) from dual;

day of the month

to_date(str,’format’) Converts the string ina given Select to_date(’10-02-09’,’dd-mm-yy’)

format into Oracle date. from dual;

to_char(date,’format’) Reformats date according to Select to_char(sysdate,’dy dd mon

format yyyy’) from dual;
Select months_between(sysdate,
months_between(d1,d2 No. of months between two
) to_date(’10-10-07’,’dd-mm-yy’) )
dates
from dual;

next_day(d,day) Date of the ‘day’ that Select next_day(sysdate,’wednesday’)

immediately follows the date ‘d’ from dual;

13/12/2024 47
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Date Functions
Functions Value Returned Input
Select round(sysdate,’year’) from dual;
Date will be the rounded to Select round(sysdate,’month’) from dual;
round(d,’format’) nearest day.
Select round(sysdate,’day’) from dual;
Select round(sysdate) from dual;
Select trunc(sysdate,’year’) from dual;
Date will be the truncated to Select trunc(sysdate,’month’) from dual;
trunc(d,’format’) nearest day.
Select trunc(sysdate,’day’) from dual;
Select trunc(sysdate) from dual;
greatest(d1,d2, Select greatest(sysdate, to_date(‘02-10- 06’,’dd-mm-
…) Picks latest of list of dates
yy’),to-date(’12-07- 12’,’dd-mm-yy’)) from dual;
Select sysdate+25 from dual;
Add /Subtract no. of days to a date
Select sysdate-25 from dual;
Date Arithmetic
Subtract one date from another, Select sysdate - to_date(‘02-10-06’,’dd- mm-yy’) from
producing a no. of days dual;

13/12/2024 48
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
String Functions
Functions Value Returned Input

initcap(char) First letter of each word Select initcap(‘database management’) from

capitalized dual;
lower(char) Lower case Select lower(‘WELCOME’) from dual;
upper(char) Upper case Select upper(‘srmist’) from dual;

ltrim(char, set) Initial characters removed up Select ltrim(‘muruganantham’,’murug’)

to the character not in set. from dual;
rtrim(char, set) Final characters removed after Select rtrim(‘muruganantham’,’antham’)
the last character not in set. from dual;
translate(char,
from, to) Translate ‘from’ by ‘to’ in char. Select translate(‘jack’,’j’,’b’) from dual;

replace(char, Replace ‘search’ string by

Select replace(‘jack and jue’,’j’,’bl’) from dual;
search, repl) ‘repl’ string in ‘char’.

substr(char, m, n) Substring of ‘char’ at ‘m’ of Select substr(‘muruganantham’,7,6) from dual;

size ‘n’ char long.

13/12/2024 49
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations

Set Operators
 Set operators are used to join the results of two (or more)
SELECT statement.
 The following set operators are available in SQL
• Union
• Union All
• Intersect
• Minus

13/12/2024 50
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Set Operators
 Union operator retrieves the records from both queries without
duplicate.
 In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns
must be same in both the tables on which UNION operation is
being applied.

 Coulmn heading will be selected from the prior query statement.

 Union All retrieves all the records from both queries (with

duplicate).
 Intersect operator retrieve the common records from both query
statements.
 Minus operator retrieve the records from first query , the records
13/12/2024 51
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Set Operators
Point to be followed while using SET operators
 The number of columns must be same in all participating query
 Column heading will be selected from the first query for displaying the output.
 Data types of the column list must be match with all the query.
 Positional ordering must be used to sort the result set.
 UNION and INTERSECT operators are commutative, i.e. the order of queries is not
important; it doesn't change the final result.
 Set operators can be the part of sub queries.
 Set operators can't be used in SELECT statements containing TABLE collection
expressions.
 The LONG, BLOB, CLOB, BFILE, VARRAY,or nested table are not permitted for use
in Set operators.
 For update clause is not allowed with the set operators.
13/12/2024 52
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Examples: Set Operators

 Create two tables named a and b with the columns f1,f2 and
id,name respectively

Sql> create table a (f1 number, f2 varchar2(5))

Table created.

Sql> create table b (id number, name varchar2(5))

Table created.

13/12/2024 53
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Examples: Set Operators
 Insert three rows as given below in tables a and b

Sql>insert into a values( 1,’Jack')

1 row(s) inserted.

Sql>insert into a values( 2,’harry')

row(s) inserted.

Sql>insert into a values( 3,’jackson')

1 row(s) inserted.

Sql>insert into b values(4,’jackson')

1 row(s) inserted.

Sql>insert into b values(5,’stephan')

1 row(s) inserted.

Sql>insert into b values(6,’david') 54

13/12/2024
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Examples: Set Operators

Records in table a Records in table b

Sql > Select * from a Sql > Select * from b;
ID NAME ID NAME
3 jackson
4 jackson
1 jack
2 harry 5 stephan
6 david

13/12/2024 55
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Examples: Set Operators
Example 1 : Union Example 2 : Union
Sql> select f1 from a Sql> select id from b
union union
select id from b; select f1 from a;

Note : Output eliminate duplication

13/12/2024 56
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Examples: Set Operators
Example : Union All
Sql>select f1 from a union all select id from b

Note : Output with duplication, 30 is common in both tables

13/12/2024 57
S3 SLO-2 : Built-in Functions-Numeric, Date,
String functions, Set operations
Examples: Set Operators

Example 1: Intersect Example 2: Intersect

Sql>select f1 from a Sql>select id from b
intersect intersect
select id from b; select f1 from a;

13/12/2024 58
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.

Joins

 SQL Joins are used to fetch records from two are more tables using a common field.
 A join is an operation that combines the rows of two or more tables based on related
columns.
 This operation is used for retrieving the data from multiple tables simultaneously
using common columns of tables.
 To implement join condition minimum two tables are required
 Join conditions used in where clause as given below

<Table_Name1> . <Column_name> = <Table_Name1> .

<Column_name>

Note : Column name used in where condition need not to same , but data type
should be same.

13/12/2024 59
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.

SELECT s.roll_no, s.name, s.address, s.phone, s.age, sc.course_id

SYNTAX: FROM Student s
JOIN StudentCourse sc ON s.roll_no = sc.roll_no;

13/12/2024 60
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.

 The Join conditions are classified as follows

• Inner Join - Equi Join type of Inner join in which we use

equivalence(‘=’) condition in the join condition
- Non Equi Join combines rows from two tables based on
a non-equality condition between two columns.(≠,<,>,>=)

• Self Join - a self join is a regular join that is used to join a table with itself
• Outer Join - Left Outer Join retrieves all records from the
left table and retrieves matching records from the right table.
- Right Outer Join retrieves all records from the right
table and retrieves matching records from the left table.

13/12/2024 61
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.
• Left Outer Join returns all the rows from the table on the left even if no
matching rows have been found in the table on the right. When no matching
record is found in the table on the right, NULL is returned.

13/12/2024 62
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.
• Right outer join returns all the columns from the table on the right even if no matching rows
have been found in the table on the left. Where no matches have been found in the table on
the left, NULL is returned. RIGHT outer JOIN is the opposite of LEFT JOIN

13/12/2024 63
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.

• In a Full Outer Join , all tuples from both relations are included
in the result, irrespective of the matching condition.

13/12/2024 64
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.
Note : Consider EMP and Dept Tables
Simple Join
 For the below query the output is cartesian prodcut

Sql> select * from emp,dept;

 For all the records in the first table (emp) , Each and every
record in the second table (dept) will be executed.
 That is , 14 x 4 Records will be in output.

13/12/2024 65
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.

Simple Join
Syntax : where <table_name1>.<column_name> =
<table_name2>.<column_name>
Example 1:
Sql> select * from emp,dept where emp.deptno=
dept.deptno;

Example 2:
Sql> select ename,dname from emp,dept where
emp.deptno= dept.deptno;

13/12/2024 66
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.

Simple Join

Example 3: ( Simple join and Equi Join)

Sql> select ename,dname from emp,dept
where emp.deptno= dept.deptno and ename like '%S‘

Example 4: ( Common column should be specified with tablename as

shown in example below)
Sql> select ename,dname,dept.deptno from emp,dept where

emp.deptno= dept.deptno and ename like '%S'

13/12/2024 67
S 4-5 SLO-1 & SLO-2 :
Lab 7 : Join Queries on sample exercise.

Simple Join
Example :
Sql> select a.ename,b.ename,a.empno,b.empno from emp a,
emp b where b.mgr=a.empno;
Outer Join
Example: (Right Outer Join)
Sql> select * from emp ,dept where emp.deptno =
dept.deptno(+);
Example: (Left Outer Join)
Sql> select * from emp ,dept where emp.deptno (+) =
dept.deptno;
13/12/2024 68
S 6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Sub Queries, correlated sub queries

 A Query statement contains another query is called sub query or nested query

 A subquery is used to return value(s) that will be used in the main query as a condition

 Sub queries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements along

with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN, etc.

 The followings to be considered while using sub query

• Subqueries must be enclosed within parentheses.

• An ORDER BY command cannot be used in a subquery

• Subqueries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple value

operators such as the IN operator.

• The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a subquery, but the BETWEEN operator can

be used within the subquery.

13/12/2024 69
S 6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Sub Queries, correlated sub queries

Basic Syntax of Subquery

SELECT column_name [, column_name ] FROM table1 [, table2 ]

WHERE column_name OPERATOR
(SELECT column_name [, column_name ] FROM table1 [,
table2 ]

13/12/2024 70
S 6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Sub Queries, correlated sub queries
Note : Consider emp table
Example : Subqueries with the SELECT Statement
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno IN (SELECT deptno FROM dept WHERE
dname = ‘SALES’ or dname = ‘RESEARCH’) ;

Example: Subqueries with the INSERT Statement

SQL> INSERT INTO emp_backup SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno IN (SELECT
deptno FROM dept) ;

Example: Subqueries with the delete Statement

SQL> DELETE FROM emp WHERE deptno IN (SELECT deptno FROM dept WHERE
deptno=10 );

Example: Subqueries with the update Statement

SQL> UPDATE emp SET comm = SAL * 0.25 WHERE deptno IN (SELECT deptno
FROM dept WHERE deptno >30);

13/12/2024 71
S 6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Sub Queries, correlated sub queries
Sample Sub queries

 SELECT ename FROM EMP WHERE sal > ( SELECT sal FROM emp WHERE empno=7566);

 SELECT ename, sal, deptno, job FROM EMP WHERE job = SELECT job FROM emp WHERE empno=7369);

 SELECT ename, sal, deptno FROM EMP WHERE sal IN ( SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno );

 SELECT empno, ename, job FROM emp WHERE sal < ANY ( SELECT sal FROM emp WHERE job = 'CLERK' );

 SELECT empno, ename, job FROM emp WHERE sal > ALL ( SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno)
;

 SELECT ename, sal, deptno FROM EMP WHERE sal IN ( SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno ) ;

 SELECT job, AVG(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY job HAVING AVG(sal) = ( SELECT MIN(AVG(sal)) FROM emp
GROUP BY job );

13/12/2024 72
S 6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Sub Queries, correlated sub queries

correlated sub queries

 SQL correlated subquery is a query which is executed one time for each record
returned by the outer query.
 It is called correlated as it is a correlation between the number of times the sub
query is executed with the number of records returned by the outer query

Examples for Correlated Sub query

 List the employees who have never received a comm.

SELECT ename,comm FROM emp e1 WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT ename

FROM emp e2 WHERE e2.empno = e1.empno AND e2,comm = null)

13/12/2024 73
S 6 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Sub Queries, correlated sub queries

 Using EXISTS the following query display the empno, mgr, ename of those
employees who manage other employees.

select empno, mgr, ename from emp a where exists

(select empno from emp b where b.mgr = a.empno)

 Find the nth maximum salry in emp table

select * from( select ename, sal, dense_rank() over(order by sal desc) r from
Emp)
where r=&n;

Note : Dense_rank () function

Example : select ename,sal, dense_rank() over ( order by sal desc) Sal_rank from
emp

13/12/2024 74
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types

Nested Sub query

 A subquery can be nested inside other subqueries.
 SQL has an ability to nest queries within one another. A subquery is a SELECT statement that is
nested within another SELECT statement and which return intermediate results.
 SQL executes innermost subquery first, then next level.

Eaxmple :
SQL> SELECT job,AVG(sal),Min(sal),Max(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY job HAVING
2 AVG(sal) < (SELECT MAX(AVG(sal)) FROM emp WHERE job IN
3 (SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno BETWEEN 10 AND 40) GROUP BY job);

JOB AVG(SAL) MIN(SAL) MAX(SAL)

--------- ---------- ---------- ----------
CLERK 1037.5 800 1300
SALESMAN 1400 1250 1600
ANALYST 3000 3000 3000
MANAGER 2758.33333 2450 2975

13/12/2024 75
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
Difference between Nested Subquery and Correlated subquery :

Nested Query

 In Nested Query, Inner query runs first, and only once. Outer query is executed with result from Inner query. Hence,
Inner query is used in execution of Outer query.

 Example : Consider EMP and Dept Tables

SQL> select deptno from dept where deptno not in ( select deptno from emp );

DEPTNO
----------
40
Correlated Query

 In Correlated Query, Outer query executes first and for every Outer query row Inner query is executed. Hence, Inner
query uses values from Outer query.

 Example : Consider EMP,Dept Tables

SQL> Select dname from dept where deptno not in ( select deptno from emp );

DNAME
--------------
OPERATIONS
13/12/2024 76
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
Difference between Nested Query, Correlated Query and Join Operation

Parameters Nested Query Correlated Query Join Operation

Definition In Nested query, a In Correlated query, a Join operation is used to
query is written query is nested inside combine data or rows from
inside another query another query and two or more tables based on
and the result of inner query uses a common field between
inner query is used values from outer them. INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN,
in execution of outer query. RIGHT JOIN, FULL JOIN are
query. different types of Joins.

Approach Bottom up approach Top to Down Approach It is basically cross product

i.e. Inner query runs i.e. Outer query satisfying a condition.
first, and only once. executes first and for
Outer query is every Outer query row
executed with result Inner query is
from Inner query. executed.

13/12/2024 77
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
Difference between Nested Query, Correlated Query and Join Operation

Parameters Nested Query Correlated Query Join Operation

Dependency Inner query execution Inner query is There is no Inner Query

is not dependent on dependent on Outer or Outer Query. Hence,
Outer query. query. no dependency is there.

Performance Performs better than Performs slower than By using joins we

Correlated Query but is both Nested Query and maximize the calculation
slower than Join Join operations as for burden on the database
Operation. every outer query but joins are better
inner query is optimized by the server
executed. so the retrieval time of
the query using joins will
almost always be faster
than that of a subquery.

13/12/2024 78
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
Views
 A view also has rows and columns like tables, but a view doesn’t store data
on the disk like a table. View is a Virtual table
 Virtual table (view) based on the result of query statement.
 Views can be created from single table
 Views can be created from single table using selected columns
 Views can be created from single table using selected rows
 Views can be created from multiple tables
 Views can be created from multiple tables using selected columns
 Views can be created from multiple tables using selected rows
 Data manipulation is possible in views with restrictions
 The changes made in the base table(s) will be reflected in view(s)
 The changes made in the views will reflected in base table with restrictions
13/12/2024 79
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
VIEWS
General Syntax
CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name(s) WHERE condition;

Example 1: Creating a view from emp table

SQL>create view emp_view as select * from emp;

View created

SQL> desc emp_view

Name Null? Type
---------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
EMPNO NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(9)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SAL NUMBER(7,2)
COMM NUMBER(7,2)
DEPTNO NUMBER(2)

13/12/2024 80
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
Views
Output of Example 1:
SQL> select * from emp_view;
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- - --------- --------- ---------- ----------
----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 09-DEC-82 3000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 12-JAN-83 1100 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10

14 rows selected.

13/12/2024 81
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
Views
Example 2: Creating a view from emp table using ename, job and sal columns

SQL> create view emp_view1 as select ename, job, sal from emp;

View created.

SQL> select * from emp_view1;

ENAME JOB SAL

---------- --------- ----------
SMITH CLERK 800
ALLEN SALESMAN 1600
WARD SALESMAN 1250
JONES MANAGER 2975
MARTIN SALESMAN 1250
BLAKE MANAGER 2850
CLARK MANAGER 2450
SCOTT ANALYST 3000
KING PRESIDENT 5000
TURNER SALESMAN 1500
ADAMS CLERK 1100
JAMES CLERK 950
FORD ANALYST 3000
MILLER CLERK 1300

14 rows selected.

13/12/2024 82
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types

Views
Example 3: Creating a view from emp table using selected rows
SQL> create view emp_view2 as select * from emp where
deptno=10;
View created.

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 10
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10

13/12/2024 83
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
Views

Example 4: Creating a view from emp table using selected rows

SQL> create view emp_view3 as select ename,job from emp where sal>2000;
View created.

SQL> select * from emp_view3;

ENAME JOB
---------- ---------
JONES MANAGER
BLAKE MANAGER
CLARK MANAGER
SCOTT ANALYST
KING PRESIDENT
FORD ANALYST

6 rows selected.
13/12/2024 84
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
Views
Example 4: Creating a view from emp and dept table

SQL> create view emp_dept as select ename,dname from emp, dept where emp.deptno=dept.deptno;
View created.

ENAME DNAME
---------- --------------
SMITH RESEARCH
ALLEN SALES
WARD SALES
JONES RESEARCH
MARTIN SALES
BLAKE SALES
CLARK ACCOUNTING
SCOTT RESEARCH
KING ACCOUNTING
TURNER SALES
ADAMS RESEARCH
JAMES SALES
FORD RESEARCH
MILLER ACCOUNTING

14 rows
13/12/2024 selected. 85
S-7 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Nested Queries, Views and its Types
Data manipulation in Views
 If view has been created from single table using all the fields the data
manipulation is possible in view and table.
• Whatever the changes made in table , that will reflected in view and
vice versa.
 If view has been created from single table using selected fields including
NOT NULL and PRIMARY KEY columns , data manipulation is possible.
• Whatever the changes made in table , that will reflected in view and
vice versa.
 If view has been created from single table using selected fields excluding
NOT NULL and PRIMARY key fields, data manipulation is having some
restrictions
• Insertion is not possible
• Updation and Deletion is possible
 If view has been created from multiple tables , data manipulation is not
possible.
13/12/2024 86
S-8 SLO-1 : Transaction Control Commands
DCL Commands
Used to give / get back / control the privileges of an object by the owner
GRANT : To give access privileges of an object to other user by the owner
Syntax : GRANT [ ALL / INSERT /UPDATE /DELETE /SELECT ]
on <OBJECT_NAME> to <USER_NAME>;
Example: GRANT all on emp to scott;
REVOKE : To get back all the privileges from the user who has been granted
Syntax : REVOKE [ ALL / INSERT /UPDATE /DELETE /SELECT ]
on <OBJECT_NAME> from <USER_NAME>;
Example: REVOKE all on emp from scott;

13/12/2024 87
S-8 SLO-2 : Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

TCL Commands

 To control the database operation

– COMMIT: Commits a Transaction. Save the changes permanently , can’t

rollback

– ROLLBACK: Rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.

– SAVEPOINT: Sets a savepoint within a transaction. Rolled back from the specified
savepoint

– RELEASE SAVEPOINT: Removes a savepoint, making it unavailable for future rollback.

– SET TRANSACTION: Specifies characteristics for the transaction, such as isolation level.
Ex:SET TRANSACTION [ READ WRITE | READ ONLY ];

13/12/2024 88
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
PL/SQL concepts

 PL/SQL is an extension of SQL.

 It is a procedural language , where SQL is a non procedural language.

 The PL/SQL programming language was developed by Oracle Corporation in the late 1980s as

procedural extension language for SQL and the Oracle relational database.

 Block of SQL statements can be executed using PL/SQL

 PL/SQL is a completely portable, high-performance transaction-processing language.

 PL/SQL provides a built-in, interpreted and OS independent programming environment.

 There are four type of PL/SQL blocks

 Anonymous Block

 Named Block

 Sub Programs ( Procedures, Functions and Packages)

13/12/2024 89
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Features of PL/SQL
 Tightly integrated with SQL.

 Extensive error checking.

 Several data types.

 Variety of programming structures.

 Structured programming through functions and procedures.

 Supports object-oriented programming.

 Easy development of web applications and server pages.

13/12/2024 90
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
Structure of PL/SQL block

DECLARE
<declarations section>
BEGIN
<executable statements>
EXCEPTION
<exception handling>
END;

13/12/2024 91
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
Structure of PL/SQL block
Declarations
 This section starts with the keyword DECLARE.
 It is an optional section
 Defines all variables, cursors, subprograms, and other elements to be
used in the program.
 Each and every variables to be declared individually.
Executable Statements
 Program execution starts from BEGIN
 Between BEGIN and END is called BODY of PL/SQL block.
 Nested BODY is permitted
 It consists of executable statements.
Exception Handling
 This is an optional section , starts with Exception
 It is used to handle the logical errors during run time.

13/12/2024 92
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Simple Example

DECLARE
message varchar2(100):= ‘Welcome to SRMIST';
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(message);
END;

Output :

Welcome to SRMIST
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

13/12/2024 93
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Comments in PL/SQL
 Double hypen (--) is Single line comment
 Multiline comments enclosed by /* and */
Example
DECLARE
-- variable declaration Single line comment
message varchar2(20):= ‘Welcome to SRMIST ';
BEGIN
/* PL/SQL executable statement(s) Multi-line Comment
This Program display a Welcome note*/
dbms_output.put_line(message);
END;

13/12/2024 94
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Data types in PL/SQL

All data types used in SQL can be used in PL/SQL

 Numeric - Numeric values on which arithmetic operations
are performed.
 Character - Alphanumeric values that represent single
characters or strings of characters.
 Boolean - Logical values on which logical operations are
performed.
 Datetime - Dates and times.

13/12/2024 95
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Variable Declaration in PL/SQL

variable_name [CONSTANT] datatype [NOT NULL] [:= |
DEFAULT initial_value]
Examples
salary number(10, 2);
pi number(10,2) := 3.1415;
ename varchar2(25);
address varchar2(100);

13/12/2024 96
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
Simple Example for variable declarations

DECLARE
a number := 10;
b number := 20;
c number (10,4);
f float;
BEGIN
c := a + b;
dbms_output.put_line('Value of c: ' || c);
f := 100.0/3.0;
dbms_output.put_line('Value of f: ' || round(f,4));
END;

Output

Value of c: 30
Value of f: 33.3333

13/12/2024 97
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
Assigning SQL query result to PL/SQL variables using INTO clause
(Consider EMP table)

DECLARE
emp_no emp.empno%type:=&emp_no;
emp_name emp.ename%type;
emp_job emp.job%type;
emp_sal emp.sal%type;
BEGIN
SELECT ename,job,sal INTO emp_name,emp_job,emp_sal
FROM emp WHERE empno = emp_no;
dbms_output.put_line
('Employee ' ||emp_name || ' working as ' || emp_job || ' and his salary is ' || emp_sal);
END;
Output
Enter value for emp_no: 7499
old 2: emp_no emp.empno%type:=&emp_no;
new 2: emp_no emp.empno%type:=7499;

Employee ALLEN working as SALESMAN his salary is 1600

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

13/12/2024 98
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

PL/SQL Operators
Arithmetic operators
Relational operators
Comparison operators
Logical operators
String operators

13/12/2024 99
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Conditional Statement in PL/SQL Loop Statement in PL/SQL

 IF - THEN statement  Basic Loop statement

 IF-THEN-ELSE statement  While Loop statement
 IF-THEN-ELSIF statement  For loop statement
 Case statement  Nested Loop statement
 Nested IF-THEN-ELSE Loop Control Statement
 Exit

 Continue

 Goto

13/12/2024 100
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Cursors
 Cursor is a private SQL workgroup area allocated temporarily

 The required amount of memory space will be allocated in cursor name

 A cursor holds the records written by select statement

 A cursor is a database object used to retrieve, manipulate, and navigate through

a set of rows returned by a SQL query. Cursors allow row-by-row processing of the
result set, enabling complex data operations that require sequential processing.
 There are two types of cursors

• Implicit Cursors (SELECT INTO)

• Explicit Cursors

13/12/2024 101
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
Implicit Cursors
 Oracle create implicit cursor automatically whenever the DML statements
( INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE) are executed.
 The implicit cursors are SQL cursors
 The SQL cursors has four attributes
Attribute Description

Always returns FALSE for implicit cursors, as they are closed automatically.
SQL%ISOPEN

Returns TRUE if the SQL statement affected one or more rows, otherwise
SQL%FOUND FALSE

Returns TRUE if the SQL statement affected no rows, otherwise FALSE.

SQL%NOTFOUND

Returns the number of rows affected by the SQL statement

SQL%ROWCOUNT

13/12/2024 102
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
Example for Implicit Cursors ( Consider EMP table)

DECLARE
total_rows number(2);
BEGIN
UPDATE emp SET sal = sal + 500 where comm is null ;
IF sql%notfound THEN
dbms_output.put_line('No Employee selected');
ELSIF sql%found THEN
total_rows := sql%rowcount;
dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' Employees selected ');
END IF;
END;

Output

10 Employees selected

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Note : Sal updated in EMP table for 10 employees , those commission is null
13/12/2024 103
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
Explicit Cursors

 Explicit cursors are user-defined cursors

 It should be defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL Block.
 Defined and controlled by the user.
 Used for multi-row queries where row-by-row processing is needed.
 Require explicit declaration, opening, fetching, and closing.
Examples include handling complex queries that require iteration over result sets.

Syntax

CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;

The following steps to be followed for explicit cursors

 Declare the cursor for initialize the memory

 Open the cursor for allocating memory

 Fetch the cursor values into local variables

 Close the cursor for release the memory

13/12/2024 104
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
Example for Explicit Cursors
DECLARE
emp_no emp.empno%type;
Output
emp_name emp.ename%type;
emp_sal emp.sal%type; emp_no emp_name emp_sal
7369 SMITH 800
CURSOR emp_cur is SELECT empno,ename,sal FROM emp; 7499 ALLEN 1600
BEGIN 7521 WARD 1250
7566 JONES 2975
OPEN emp_cur; 7654 MARTIN 1250
dbms_output.put_line(‘emp_no’ || ' ' || ‘emp_name’ || ' ' ||’emp_sal’); 7698 BLAKE 2850
7782 CLARK 2450
LOOP 7788 SCOTT 3000
FETCH emp_cur into emp_no,emp_name,emp_sal; 7839 KING 5000
7844 TURNER 1500
EXIT WHEN emp_cur%notfound; 7876 ADAMS 1100
dbms_output.put_line(emp_no || ' ' || emp_name || ' ' || emp_sal); 7900 JAMES 950
7902 FORD 3000
END LOOP; 7934 MILLER 1300
CLOSE emp_cur; PL/SQL procedure successfully
completed.
END;

13/12/2024 105
S-11 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors
Cursor based Records
Output
Employee Number Name
DECLARE 7369 SMITH
CURSOR emp_currec is SELECT empno, ename FROM emp; 7499 ALLEN
7521 WARD
emp_rec emp_currec%rowtype;
7566 JONES
BEGIN 7654 MARTIN
OPEN emp_currec; 7698 BLAKE
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(‘Employee Number’ || ' ' || ‘Name’); 7782 CLARK
7788 SCOTT
LOOP 7839 KING
FETCH emp_currec into emp_rec; 7844 TURNER
EXIT WHEN emp_currec%notfound; 7876 ADAMS
7900 JAMES
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(emp_rec.empno || ' ' || emp_rec.ename); 7902 FORD
END LOOP; 7934 MILLER
END;
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

13/12/2024 106
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Sub Program
 A program which can be called and executed in another program.

 Sub program will user identification and program identification

( procedure / function name).

 The program which is calling the sub program is known as calling

program or main program.

 In PL/SQL there are two types of sub programs.

• Procedures

• Functions

 The collection of procedure(s) and Function(s) is a PACKAGE.

13/12/2024 107
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Procedures
 Procedures do not return directly
 Used to perform a specific task
 General Syntax for Procedure

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])] {IS | AS}
BEGIN
< procedure_body >
END procedure_name;

13/12/2024 108
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Procedures
In the given syntax
 procedure-name specifies the name of the procedure.
 [OR REPLACE] option allows the modification of an existing procedure.
 The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the parameters.
• IN parameter lets you pass a value to the subprogram. It is a read-only
parameter.
• OUT parameter returns a value to the calling program. Inside the
subprogram, an OUT parameter acts like a variable.
• IN OUT parameter passes an initial value to a subprogram and returns an
updated value to the caller.
 procedure-body contains the executable part.
 The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone
procedure.
13/12/2024 109
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example: Welcome note
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE
The procedure can be executed as given
welcome
below also
AS
BEGIN SQL> begin
dbms_output.put_line 2 welcome;
('Welcome to SRMIST'); 3 end;
END; 4 /
Welcome to SRMIST

Output PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> exec welcome; -- to run the
procedure
Welcome to SRMIST
PL/SQL procedure successfully
completed.

13/12/2024 110
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example : Parameters
Output
DECLARE
a number:=&a; Enter value for a: 100
b number:=&b; old 2: a number:=&a;
c number;
New 2: a number:=100;
PROCEDURE findMin
Enter value for b: 200
(x IN number, y IN number, z OUT number) IS
BEGIN old 3: b number:=&b;
IF x < y THEN New 3: b number:=200;
z:= x; Minimum of 100 and 200 is :100
ELSE
z:= y;
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
END IF;
END;
BEGIN
findMin(a, b, c);
dbms_output.put_line
(' Minimum of '|| a ||' and ' ||b || ' is :' || c);
END;
13/12/2024 111
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example : Parameters

DECLARE
a number := &a;
PROCEDURE square (x IN OUT number) IS
BEGIN
x := x * x;
END;
BEGIN
square(a);
dbms_output.put_line (' Square is : ' || a);
END;

Output
Enter value for a: 10
old 2: a number := &a;
new 2: a number := 10;
Square is : 100

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

13/12/2024 112
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling

Example : Display ename from emp table Output

SQL> exec get_ename;

create or replace PROCEDURE get_ename IS
SMITH
emp_name VARCHAR2(10); ALLEN
CURSOR c1 IS SELECT ename FROM WARD
emp; JONES
MARTIN
BEGIN
BLAKE
OPEN c1; CLARK
LOOP SCOTT
FETCH c1 INTO emp_name; KING
TURNER
EXIT WHEN c1%NOTFOUND; ADAMS
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(emp_name); JAMES
END LOOP; FORD
MILLER
CLOSE c1;
END get_ename; PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

13/12/2024 113
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example : Display employee record

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE get_emp_rec (emp_number IN emp.empno%TYPE) AS

emp_ret emp%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT empno, ename, job, mgr, hiredate, sal, comm, deptno
INTO emp_ret
FROM emp
WHERE empno = emp_number;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(emp_ret.empno||' '||emp_ret.ename||' '||
emp_ret.job||' '||emp_ret.sal);
END;

Output
SQL> exec get_emp_rec (7499);
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 1600

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

13/12/2024 114
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Functions
 Function is like procedure , but it should return a value and it returns
only one value
 General syntax for Function creation

CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name [(parameter_name

[IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])] RETURN return_datatype {IS | AS}
BEGIN
< function_body >
END [function_name];

13/12/2024 115
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Functions

In the given syntax

 function-name specifies the name of the function.
 [OR REPLACE] option allows the modification of an existing function.
 The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the parameters.
• IN parameter lets you pass a value to the subprogram. It is a read-only
parameter.
• OUT parameter returns a value to the calling program. Inside the subprogram, an
OUT parameter acts like a variable.
• IN OUT parameter passes an initial value to a subprogram and returns an updated
value to the caller.
 The function must contain a return statement.
 The RETURN clause specifies the data type you are going to return from the function.
 function-body contains the executable part.
 The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone function.
13/12/2024 116
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example : To count the number of employees in emp table

Creation of Function: Calling the Function

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION DECLARE

n number(2);
total_employee RETURN number IS
BEGIN
total number(2) := 0; n := total_employee();
BEGIN dbms_output.put_line('Total no. of
SELECT count(*) into total FROM Employees: ' || n);
emp; END;
RETURN total;
END; Output
Total no. of Employees: 14

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

13/12/2024 117
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example : Function to find the maximum of given two numbers

DECLARE
a number := &a;
b number := &b;
c number; Output
FUNCTION findMax(x IN number, y IN number)
RETURN number IS Enter value for a: 100
z number; old 2: a number := &a;
BEGIN
New 2: a number := 100;
IF x > y THEN
z:= x; Enter value for b: 200
ELSE old 3: b number := &b;
z:= y; New 3: b number := 200;
END IF; Maximum of 100 and 200 is: 200
RETURN z;
END;
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
BEGIN
c := findMax(a, b);
dbms_output.put_line(' Maximum of '||a||' and '||b|| ' is: ' || c);
END;

13/12/2024 118
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Recursive Function in PL/SQL : Find the Factorial of a number
DECLARE
num number;
factorial number;
FUNCTION fact(x number) RETURN number IS
f number; Output
BEGIN Enter value for num: 5
IF x=0 THEN old 17: num:= &num;
f := 1; new 17: num:= 5;
ELSE Factorial 5 is 120
f := x * fact(x-1);
END IF; PL/SQL procedure successfully
RETURN f; completed.
END;
BEGIN
num:= &num;
factorial := fact(num);
dbms_output.put_line(' Factorial '|| num || ' is ' || factorial);
END;

13/12/2024 119
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Triggers
 Triggers are event driven program
 Not necessary to execute manually
 Triggers are automatically executed when the event ocuurs
 There are 12 events are there in PL/SQL
• Before insert
• Before delete
• Before update
• After insert
• After delete
• After update
 The above mentioned events can be executed for each row or each statements
 Totally 12 triggers
 Apart from these triggers, Instead of triggers are also available which is used to
insert into the views which is created from more than one tables 120
13/12/2024
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Syntax for Trigger
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }

{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} [OF col_name] ON table_name [REFERENCING

OLD AS o NEW AS n] [FOR EACH ROW] WHEN (condition)

DECLARE

<Declaration-statements>

BEGIN

<Executable-statements>

EXCEPTION

<Exception-handling-statements>

END; 121
13/12/2024
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
In the given syntax
 CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name − Creates or replaces an existing
trigger with the trigger_name.
 {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} − This specifies when the trigger will be executed.
The INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating trigger on a view.
 {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} − This specifies the DML operation.
 [OF col_name] − This specifies the column name that will be updated.
 [ON table_name] − This specifies the name of the table associated with the trigger.
 [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n] − This allows you to refer new and old values
for various DML statements, such as INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
 [FOR EACH ROW] − This specifies a row-level trigger, i.e., the trigger will be
executed for each row being affected. Otherwise the trigger will execute just once
when the SQL statement is executed, which is called a table level trigger.
 WHEN (condition) − This provides a condition for rows for which the trigger would
13/12/2024 122
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example : Display the salary difference in emp table
Output
create or replace trigger display_salary_changes SQL> update emp set sal = 1111 where empno = 7900;
Old salary: 950
before delete or insert or update on emp
New salary: 1111
for each row
Salary difference: 161
when (new.empno > 0)
declare 1 row updated.
sal_diff number; SQL> insert into emp values
begin (1234,'NANTHA','MANAGER',7839,'23-MAR-
sal_diff := :new.sal - :old.sal; 83',4000,NULL,30);
Old salary:
dbms_output.put_line('old salary: '
New salary: 4000
|| :old.sal);
Salary difference:
dbms_output.put_line('new salary: '
|| :new.sal); 1 row created.
dbms_output.put_line('salary difference: ' ||
sal_diff); SQL> delete from emp where empno=1234;

end; 1 row deleted.

13/12/2024 123
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example for Triggers
Voters_list and polling

Click the following link

C:\Users\Admin\Desktop\Academic Year 2021_2022 EVEN Semester\

18CSC303J DBMS\BM_DBMS_PPT_18CSC303J\Triggers Example.docx

13/12/2024 124
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Exception Handling

 Exception handling is an error handling mechanism

 It will handle the logical errors during the runtime

 While the occurrence of logical errors , exceptions are used to continue the program execution
instead stop the execution.
 There are two types of exceptions are in PL/SQL

• System defined Exception

• No_data_found

• Login_denied

• Too_many_rows

• Value_error

• Zero_divide
• User defined Exception
13/12/2024 125
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Exception Handling
General Syntax

DECLARE
<declarations section>
BEGIN
<executable command(s)>
EXCEPTION
<exception handling goes here >
WHEN exception1 THEN exception1-handling-statements
WHEN exception2 THEN exception2-handling-statements
WHEN exception3 THEN exception3-handling-statements
........
END;
13/12/2024 126
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example : System defined Exception Output
declare Enter value for empno: 7499
emp_number number(10) := old 2: emp_number number(10) :=
&empno;
&empno;
New 2: emp_number number(10) := 7499;
emp_name varchar2(10);
Employee name is ALLEN
begin
select ename into emp_name from PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
emp where empno = emp_number;
dbms_output.put_line('employee SQL> /
name is ' || emp_name); Enter value for empno: 1234
exception old 2: emp_number number(10) :=
when no_data_found then &empno;
dbms_output.put_line('no such New 2: emp_number number(10) := 1234;
employee: ' || emp_number); No such employee: 1234
end;
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
13/12/2024 127
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example for User defined exception With Raise command
DECLARE
emp_name VARCHAR2(10);
emp_number NUMBER;
empno_out_of_range EXCEPTION;

BEGIN
emp_number := &empno;
IF emp_number > 9999 OR emp_number < 1000 THEN
RAISE empno_out_of_range;
ELSE
SELECT ename INTO emp_name FROM emp WHERE empno = emp_number;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee name is ' || emp_name);
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN empno_out_of_range THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee number ' || emp_number || ' is out of range.');
END;

13/12/2024 128
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Output
SQL> /
Enter value for empno: 7499
old 6: emp_number := &empno;
new 6: emp_number := 7499;
Employee name is ALLEN

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> /
Enter value for empno: 900
old 6: emp_number := &empno;
new 6: emp_number := 900;
Employee number 900 is out of range.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> /
Enter value for empno: 10000
old 6: emp_number := &empno;
new 6: emp_number := 10000;
Employee number 10000 is out of range.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

13/12/2024 129
S-12 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Example : With user defined and System defined Exceptions
DECLARE Output

emp_name VARCHAR2(10); SQL> /

emp_number NUMBER; Enter value for empno: 7499
old 6: emp_number := &empno;
empno_out_of_range EXCEPTION; new 6: emp_number := 7499;
BEGIN Employee name is ALLEN

emp_number := &empno; PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

IF emp_number > 9999 OR emp_number < 1000 THEN
SQL> /
RAISE empno_out_of_range; Enter value for empno: 1234
ELSE old 6: emp_number := &empno;
new 6: emp_number := 1234;
SELECT ename INTO emp_name FROM emp Employee number does not exist
WHERE empno = emp_number;
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee name is ' || emp_name);
SQL> /
END IF; Enter value for empno: 500
EXCEPTION old 6: emp_number := &empno;
new 6: emp_number := 500;
WHEN empno_out_of_range THEN Employee number 500 is out of range.
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Employee number ' || emp_number ||
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
' is out of range.');
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN SQL> /
Enter value for empno: 20000
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Employee number does not exist'); old 6: emp_number := &empno;
new 6: emp_number := 20000;
END; Employee number 20000 is out of range.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

13/12/2024 130
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing

 Query processing is the process of identifying the fessible

solution to execute the query.

 There are number of ways to execute the query , from

that optimal solution will be identified and executed.

 The basic steps in Query processing are

• Parsing and translation
• Optimization
• Evaluation

13/12/2024 131
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing

Parser and Relational Algebra

Query Translator Expression

Optimizer

Evaluation Execution
Query Output
Engine Plan

Statistics
Data Data about Data

13/12/2024 132
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing

Basic Steps in Query Processing

 Parsing and translation

• Translate the query into its internal form.

• This is then translated into relational algebra.
• Parser checks syntax, verifies relations
 Evaluation

• The query-execution engine takes a query-evaluation plan, executes that

plan, and returns the answers to the query.

13/12/2024 133
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing
Basic steps in Query Optimization
 A relational algebra expression may have many equivalent expressions
• E.g., salary75000(salary(instructor)) is equivalent to

salary(salary75000(instructor))
 Each relational algebra operation can be evaluated using one of several different
algorithms
• Correspondingly, a relational-algebra expression can be evaluated in many
ways.
 Annotated expression specifying detailed evaluation strategy is called an
evaluation-plan.
• E.g., can use an index on salary to find instructors with salary < 75000,
• or can perform complete relation scan and discard instructors with salary 
75000

13/12/2024 134
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing

Basic steps in Query Optimization

 Query Optimization: Amongst all equivalent evaluation plans
choose the one with lowest cost.
• Cost is estimated using statistical information from the
database catalog
 e.g. number of tuples in each relation, size of tuples, etc.
 In this chapter we study
• How to measure query costs
• Algorithms for evaluating relational algebra operations
• How to combine algorithms for individual operations in order to
evaluate a complete expression

13/12/2024 135
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing
Measures of Query Cost
 Cost is generally measured as total elapsed time for answering query

• Many factors contribute to time cost

 disk accesses, CPU, or even network communication

 Typically disk access is the predominant cost, and is also relatively easy to
estimate. Measured by taking into account
• Number of seeks * average-seek-cost
• Number of blocks read * average-block-read-cost
• Number of blocks written * average-block-write-cost
 Cost to write a block is greater than cost to read a block

• data is read back after being written to ensure that the write was
successful
13/12/2024 136
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing
Measures of Query Cost

 For simplicity we just use the number of block transfers from disk and the number of seeks as the
cost measures
• tT – time to transfer one block
• tS – time for one seek
• Cost for b block transfers plus S seeks
b * t T + S * tS
 We ignore CPU costs for simplicity
• Real systems do take CPU cost into account
 We do not include cost to writing output to disk in our cost formulae
 Several algorithms can reduce disk IO by using extra buffer space
• Amount of real memory available to buffer depends on other concurrent queries and OS
processes, known only during execution
 We often use worst case estimates, assuming only the minimum amount of memory needed
for the operation is available
 Required data may be buffer resident already, avoiding disk I/O
• But hard to take into account for cost estimation
13/12/2024 137
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing

Selection Operation
File scan
 Algorithm A1 (linear search). Scan each file block and test all records to see whether
they satisfy the selection condition.
• Cost estimate = br block transfers + 1 seek
 br denotes number of blocks containing records from relation r
• If selection is on a key attribute, can stop on finding record
 cost = (br /2) block transfers + 1 seek
• Linear search can be applied regardless of
 selection condition or
 ordering of records in the file, or
 availability of indices
 Note: binary search generally does not make sense since data is not stored consecutively
• except when there is an index available,
• and binary search requires more seeks than index search

13/12/2024 138
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing

Selection using Indices

 Index scan – search algorithms that use an index

• selection condition must be on search-key of index.
 A2 (primary index, equality on key). Retrieve a single record
that satisfies the corresponding equality condition
• Cost = (hi + 1) * (tT + tS)
 A3 (primary index, equality on nonkey) Retrieve multiple
records.
• Records will be on consecutive blocks
 Let b = number of blocks containing matching records
• Cost = hi * (tT + tS) + tS + tT * b

13/12/2024 139
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing

Selection using Indices

 A4 (secondary index, equality on nonkey).

• Retrieve a single record if the search-key is a candidate
key
 Cost = (hi + 1) * (tT + tS)
• Retrieve multiple records if search-key is not a candidate
key
 each of n matching records may be on a different block
 Cost = (hi + n) * (tT + tS)
o Can be very expensive!

13/12/2024 140
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing

Selection using Indices

 Can implement selections of the form AV (r) or A  V(r) by using

• a linear file scan,
• or by using indices in the following ways:
 A5 (primary index, comparison). (Relation is sorted on A)
• For A  V(r) use index to find first tuple  v and scan relation sequentially from
there
• For AV (r) just scan relation sequentially till first tuple > v; do not use index
 A6 (secondary index, comparison).
• For A  V(r) use index to find first index entry  v and scan index sequentially
from there, to find pointers to records.
• For AV (r) just scan leaf pages of index finding pointers to records, till first
entry > v
• In either case, retrieve records that are pointed to
 requires an I/O for each record
 Linear file scan may be cheaper

13/12/2024 141
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing

Conjunction: 1 2. . . n(r)

 A7 (conjunctive selection using one index).
• Select a combination of i and algorithms A1 through A7 that results in
the least cost for i (r).
• Test other conditions on tuple after fetching it into memory buffer.
 A8 (conjunctive selection using composite index).
• Use appropriate composite (multiple-key) index if available.
 A9 (conjunctive selection by intersection of identifiers).
• Requires indices with record pointers.
• Use corresponding index for each condition, and take intersection of all
the obtained sets of record pointers.
• Then fetch records from file
• If some conditions do not have appropriate indices, apply test in
memory.
13/12/2024 142
S-13 SLO-1 & SLO-2 : Query Processing

Disjunction: 1 2 . . . n (r).

 A10 (disjunctive selection by union of identifiers).
• Applicable if all conditions have available indices.
 Otherwise use linear scan.
• Use corresponding index for each condition, and take
union of all the obtained sets of record pointers.
• Then fetch records from file
 Negation: (r)
• Use linear scan on file
• If very few records satisfy , and an index is applicable to

 Find satisfying records using index and fetch from file

13/12/2024 143