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Cell and Cell Division

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Dhakar Tenzin
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4 views38 pages

Cell and Cell Division

Uploaded by

Dhakar Tenzin
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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CELL AND CELL DIVISION

Dr Bhaskar Sharma
AIIMS, New Delhi
Cells are the basic structural and functional units
of all multicellular organisms

It is the smallest unit that display the


characteristics of life, i.e. reproduction,
metabolism, response to stimuli

Cells can be divided into two major


compartments:

• Cytoplasm : part of the cell located outside the


nucleus.
• Contains organelles (“little organs”) and
inclusions in an aqueous gel called the
cytoplasmic matrix
• Nucleus
Plasma Membrane = selectively
permeable boundary between
the cell and the environment

Nucleus = regulatory center of


General Subdivisions of a Cell
the cell

Cytoplasm = everything between


the plasma membrane and the
nucleus (fluid + organelles)
Organelles:

• Membranous (membrane limited) : with plasma


membranes
• Non-membranous : without plasma membranes

Function:

• Perform the metabolic, synthetic, energy-requiring


and energy- generating functions of the cell
Plasma (cell) membrane,

• Lipid bilayer forms cell


boundary as well as the
boundaries of many organelles
within the cell
• Phospholipids are liquid at body
temperature, so proteins float
around in the membrane
• Fluid Mosaic model
Function

• Ion and nutrient transport, Recognition of signal, Cell-


to-cell and cell-to-extracellular matrix adhesions
• Ensure the composition of extracellular and
intracellular fluid is not the same
• Water-soluble substances (salts, nutrients) cross
membrane with aid of protein channels
• Lipids can pass directly through bilayer by diffusion
(the random walk of molecules)
• Attachment of cytoskeleton, internal support of the
cell
Nucleus

• Function: Storage
and use of
genome, DNA
• Mainly contains-
• Nuclear envelope
• Chromatin
• Nucleolus
1. Nuclear Envelope (membrane)
• Phospholipid bilayer with nuclear pores, Selectively
permeable

2. Chromatin
• Thread like structure
• Containing DNA wrapped around histones,
nucleosome
• Looks like Beads on a string and packaged into higher
order chromatin
3.Nucleolus – site of
ribosome synthesis

• Compartment in the
nucleus
• Site of Ribosome formation,
then they moved out into
cytoplasm through nuclear
pores
• Function: Synthesis of rRNA
and partial assembly of
ribosomal subunits
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Within the cytoplasm network, a system of tubes and sacs
formed by membranes (an enclosed space)

a. Rough
• with bound ribosomes
• modifies proteins produced by the ribosomes

b. Smooth
• without bound ribosomes
• doesn’t modify proteins
• functions in lipid synthesis, drug detoxification, carbohydrate
metabolism
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• A system of tubes and sacs


formed by membranes
within cytoplasm

Rough-surfaced endoplasmic
reticulum (rER):
• Binds ribosomes engaged in
translating mRNA for proteins
• Involved in chemical
modifications of proteins and
membrane lipid synthesis
Smooth-surfaced
endoplasmic reticulum (sER)

• A region of endoplasmic
reticulum involved in lipid and
steroid synthesis but not
associated with ribosomes
Golgi Apparatus

• Composed of multiple flattened


cisternae.
• Functions for modifying,
sorting, and packaging proteins
and lipids for intracellular or
extracellular transport
Mitochondria:

• Provide most of the energy to


the cell by producing ATP in the
process of oxidative
phosphorylation
• “thread granule”, major source
of cell’s energy
• requires oxygen to make this
exchange (aerobic metabolism)
• contained within double
membrane
• Function: Aerobic energy
supply, Initiation of apoptosis
Transport vesicles:

• Small membrane-bound structures


that transport proteins and lipids
around the cell
• Pinocytotic vesicles, Endocytotic
vesicles, and coated vesicles
• When they contact the appropriate
organelle, they fuse with its outer
membrane and dump their
contents inside

Vesicles move from ER to Golgi


Lysosomes

• Contain digestive enzymes


• Suicide bag of cell
• Function: Digestion of
macromolecules
Peroxisomes:
• Involved in the
production and
degradation of Hydrogen
Peroxide and degradation
of fatty acids
• Function: Oxidative
digestion of fatty acids
Non-membranous organelles

Ribosomes
• Non Membranous
• Assembled in the nucleolus and exported into the
cytoplasm
• Essential for protein synthesis and composed of ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal proteins
• Free – unbound in the fluid cytoplasm, produce proteins
for use in the cell
• Bound – attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER),
produce proteins for export, or for the plasma membrane
Cell Division
Why do cells divide?

• Growth
• Repair and replace dead cells
• Asexual reproduction
The cell cycle is the sequence of growth and
division of a cell.

It consists of three major phases:

• Interphase
• M phase
• Cytokinesis.
Interphase Estimated (90% of cycle) 3
phases:

• G1 phase
• S phase
• G2 phase
G1 phase

• Growth of cell.
• Dupliction of organelles.
• Synthisis of proteins
S Phase

• DNA synthesis occurs


• DNA replication results in duplicated
chromosomes
• Histone protein synthesis
G2 Phase

• Cell continues to grow and if a problem occurs


in DNA replication, it will be repaired
• Cell will prepare for mitosis
• Cell synthesizes proteins needed for cell
division
M Phase : Estimated (10% of cycle)

Includes 2 parts :

• 1)Mitosis
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
• 2) Cytokinesis
Mitosis is the process in which a eukaryotic cell separates the
chromosomes in its cell nucleus, into two identical sets in two
daughter cells.
Prophase

• Chromosomes condense (get


thicker) and coil, they become
visible under light microscope.
• The two sister chromatids of each
chromosomes attach at a point
called centromere.
• Spindle fibers begin to form from
two centrosome, and they will
start moving apart
Metaphase

• Chromosomes reach their


most highly condensed
state
• The spindle fibers begin to
contract to the centromeres
of the chromosomes, which
are now arranged along the
middle of the spindle
Anaphase

• The centromere splits,


allowing the sister
chromatids to separate
• The chromatids are then
pulled by the spindle
fibers toward opposite
sides of the cell
Telophase

• New nuclear membranes are


formed around each of the two
sets of 46 chromosomes.
• The spindle fibers disappear.
• Chromosomes become thinner.
• Cytoplasm starts dividing by
contractile ring.
• At the end, we will have two
diploid daughter cells, which
are identical
Cytokinesis

• The division of the


cytoplasm and
organelles
• Begin in anaphase
and completed by
the end of telophase
Meiosis
• Occurs in reproductive organs like testis & ovaries, leads
to the production of gametes
• Involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division
 Meiosis I : Reduction division, only segregation of
homologous chromosomes occurs
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
 Meiosis II : Equational division, chromosome number
remain same
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Meiosis I Prophase I
• Leptotene – bead like structures
are present = chromomeres
• Zygotene – pairing of
chromosomes = synapsis form
bivalents, pairs of homologous
chromosomes
• Pachytene – crossing over occurs =
exchange of genetic material
between non-sister chromatids
• Diplotene – chiasmata visible =
homologous chromosomes start
repulsing each other for x- shaped
structure
• Diakinesis – chiasmata open =
terminalisation of chiasmata
• Metaphase I : Bivalents arrange on equator – metaphase plate
• Anaphase I : Segregation of chromosomes, division of centromere is absent
• Telophase I : Nuclear membrane and nucleolus re appear
• Cytokinesis I : Animal cells divide by constriction & furrow resulting diploid(2n) into 2 haploid cell (n)
Meiosis II : Same as mitosis, haploid (n) cell divide to form two haploid (n) cells
Thank you

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