4

Skin and Body Membranes

 Body Membranes

• Function of body membranes

• Cover body surfaces
• Line body cavities
• Form protective sheets around organs
• Classified according to tissue types
 Classification of Body Membranes

• Epithelial membranes
• Cutaneous membranes
• Mucous membranes
• Serous membranes
• Connective tissue membranes
• Synovial membranes
 Cutaneous
membrane
(skin)

(a) Cutaneous membrane (the skin)

covers the body surface.
Figure 4.1a
 Mucosa of
nasal cavity
Mucosa of
mouth
Esophagus
lining

Mucosa of
lung bronchi

(b) Mucous membranes line body cavities

open to the exterior.
Figure 4.1b
 Serous Membranes

• Specific serous membranes

• Peritoneum
• Abdominal cavity
• Pleura
• Around the lungs
• Pericardium
• Around the heart
 Parietal
Parietal
pleura
peritoneum
Visceral
Visceral pleura
peritoneum
Parietal Visceral
pericardium pericardium
(c) Serous membranes line body cavities
closed to the exterior.

Figure 4.1c
 Connective Tissue Membrane

• Synovial membrane
• Connective tissue only
• Lines fibrous capsules surrounding joints
• Secretes a lubricating fluid
Ligament

Joint cavity
(contains
synovial fluid)
Articular (hyaline)
cartilage
Fibrous
capsule
Articular
Synovial capsule
membrane

Figure 4.2
 Integumentary System

• Skin (cutaneous membrane)

• Skin derivatives
• Sweat glands
• Oil glands
• Hair
• Nails
 Skin Functions

• Protects deeper tissues from:

• Mechanical damage (bumps)
• Chemical damage (acids and bases)
• Bacterial damage
• Ultraviolet radiation (sunlight)
• Thermal damage (heat or cold)
• Dessication (drying out)
 Skin Functions

• Aids in body heat loss or heat retention as controlled by

the nervous system
• Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid
• Synthesizes vitamin D: Page 120
 Skin Structure

• Epidermis—outer layer
• Stratified squamous epithelium
• Cornified or keratinized (hardened by keratin) to prevent water
loss
• Avascular
• Most cells are keratinocytes
• Dermis
• Dense connective tissue
 Skin Structure

• Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) is deep to dermis

• Not technically part of the skin
• Anchors skin to underlying organs
• Composed mostly of adipose tissue
 Hair shaft

Dermal papillae
Epidermis
Papillary Pore
layer
Appendages of skin
• Eccrine sweat gland
• Arrector pili muscle
Dermis • Sebaceous (oil) gland
Reticular
layer • Hair follicle
• Hair root

Hypodermis
(superficial fascia)

Cutaneous vascular plexus

Nervous structures
• Sensory nerve fiber
• Lamellar corpuscle Adipose tissue
• Hair follicle receptor
(root hair plexus)

Figure 4.3
 Layers of the Epidermis: 114

• Summary of layers from deepest to most superficial

• Stratum basale
• Stratum spinosum
• Stratum granulosum
• Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only)
• Stratum corneum
 Melanin

• Pigment (melanin) produced by melanocytes

• Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale
• Color is yellow to brown to black
• Amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics
and exposure to sunlight
 Keratinocytes
Epidermal
Desmosomes dendritic cell

Stratum corneum. Cells are dead;

represented only by flat membranous
sacs filled with keratin. Glycolipids in
extracellular space.
Stratum granulosum. Cells are
flattened, organelles are deteriorating;
cytoplasm full of granules.

Stratum spinosum. Cells contain thick

bundles of intermediate filaments
made of pre-keratin.

Stratum basale. Cells are actively

Merkel dividing stem cells; some newly
cell formed cells become part of the more
superficial layers.

Sensory Dermis
Melanocytes Melanin nerve
granules ending
Figure 4.4
Dermis
• Two layers
• Papillary layer (upper dermal region)
• Projections called dermal papillae
• Some contain capillary loops
• Others house pain receptors and
touch receptors
• Reticular layer (deepest skin layer)
• Blood vessels
• Sweat and oil glands
• Deep pressure receptors
 Dermis

• Overall dermis structure

• Collagen and elastic fibers located throughout the dermis
• Collagen fibers give skin its toughness
• Elastic fibers give skin elasticity
• Blood vessels play a role in body temperature regulation
Epidermis

Papillary layer
of dermis

Reticular layer
of dermis

Figure 4.5
Normal Skin Color Determinants
• Melanin
• Yellow, brown, or black pigments
• Carotene
• Orange-yellow pigment from some
vegetables
• Hemoglobin
• Red coloring from blood cells in dermal
capillaries
• Oxygen content determines the extent of
red coloring
 Alterations in Skin Color

• Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment,

inflammation, hypertension, fever, or allergy
• Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress such as fear,
anemia, low blood pressure, impaired blood flow to an
area
• Jaundice (yellowing)—liver disorder
• Bruises—hematomas
 Skin Appendages

• Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands

• Sebaceous glands
• Sweat glands
• Hair
• Hair follicles
• Nails
 Appendages of the Skin

• Oil (sebaceous) glands

• Produce oil (sebum)
• Lubricant for skin
• Prevents brittle hair
• Kills bacteria
• Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles; others open
directly onto skin surface
• Glands are activated at puberty
 Sweat
pore

Sebaceous Eccrine
gland gland

Dermal connective
tissue

Sebaceous
gland duct
Hair in
hair follicle
Secretory cells

(a) Photomicrograph of a sectioned

sebaceous gland (14×)
Figure 4.7a
 Appendages of the Skin

• Sweat (sudoriferous) glands

• Produce sweat
• Widely distributed in skin
 Appendages of the Skin

• Two types of sudoriferous glands

• Eccrine
• Open via duct to pore on skin surface
• Produce sweat (clear)
• Apocrine
• Ducts empty into hair follicles
• Begin to function at puberty
• Release sweat that also contains fatty acids and proteins
(milky/yellowish color)
 Sweat
pore

Sebaceous Eccrine
gland gland

Dermal connective
tissue
Eccrine
gland duct

Secretory cells

(b) Photomicrograph of a
sectioned eccrine
gland (180×)
Figure 4.7b
Sweat and Its Function
• Composition
• Mostly water
• Salts and vitamin C
• Some metabolic waste
• Fatty acids and proteins (apocrine only)
• Function
• Helps dissipate excess heat
• Excretes waste products
• Acidic nature inhibits bacteria growth
• Odor is from associated bacteria
 Appendages of the Skin

• Hair
• Produced by hair follicle
• Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
• Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color
• Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in stratum basale
Figure 4.8c
Appendages of the Skin
• Hair anatomy
• Central medulla
• Cortex surrounds medulla
• Cuticle on outside of cortex
• Most heavily keratinized
Cuticle
Cortex
Medulla

(b) Hair
Figure 4.8b
 Appendages of the Skin

• Associated hair structures

• Hair follicle
• Dermal and epidermal sheath surround hair root
• Arrector pili muscle
• Smooth muscle
• Pulls hairs upright when cold or frightened
• Sebaceous gland
• Sudoriferous gland
Hair
shaft

Arrector
pili

Sebaceous
gland

Hair root

Hair bulb
in follicle

(a)
Figure 4.8a
Figure 4.9
 Appendages of the Skin

• Nails
• Scale-like modifications of the epidermis
• Heavily keratinized
• Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed
• Responsible for growth
• Lack of pigment makes them colorless
 Appendages of the Skin

• Nail structures
• Free edge
• Body is the visible attached portion
• Root of nail embedded in skin
• Cuticle is the proximal nail fold that projects onto the nail body
 Lunule Lateral
nail fold

(a)

Free edge Body Cuticle Root of nail

of nail of nail
Proximal Nail
nail fold matrix

(b) Nail bed Bone of fingertip

Figure 4.10a-b
 Skin Homeostatic Imbalances

• Burns: Page 121

• Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV
radiation, or chemicals
• Associated dangers
• Dehydration
• Electrolyte imbalance
• Circulatory shock
 Rule of Nines

• Way to determine the extent of burns

• Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation
• Each area represents about 9 percent of total body
surface area
Severity of Burns
• First-degree burns
• Only epidermis is damaged
• Skin is red and swollen
• Second-degree burns
• Epidermis and upper dermis are damaged
• Skin is red with blisters
• Third-degree burns
• Destroys entire skin layer; burned area is
painless
• Burn is gray-white or black
Figure 4.11b
 Critical Burns

• Burns are considered critical if

• Over 25 percent of body has second-degree burns
• Over 10 percent of the body has third-degree burns
• There are third-degree burns of the face, hands, or feet
 Skin Homeostatic Imbalances

• Infections
• Athlete’s foot (tinea pedis)
• Caused by fungal infection
• Boils and carbuncles
• Caused by bacterial infection
• Cold sores
• Caused by virus
 Skin Homeostatic Imbalances

• Infections and allergies

• Contact dermatitis
• Exposures cause allergic reaction
• Impetigo
• Caused by bacterial infection
• Psoriasis
• Cause is unknown
• Triggered by trauma, infection, stress
Figure 4.12a-c
 Skin Cancer

• Cancer—abnormal cell mass

• Classified two ways
• Benign
• Does not spread (encapsulated)
• Malignant
• Metastasized (moves) to other parts of the body
• Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer
Skin Cancer Types
• Basal cell carcinoma
• Least malignant
• Most common type
• Arises from stratum basale
Figure 4.13a
 Skin Cancer Types

• Squamous cell carcinoma

• Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not removed
• Early removal allows a good chance of cure
• Believed to be sun-induced
• Arises from stratum spinosum
 Skin Cancer Types

• Malignant melanoma
• Most deadly of skin cancers
• Cancer of melanocytes
• Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels
• Detection uses ABCD rule
 ABCD Rule

• A = Asymmetry
• Two sides of pigmented mole do not match
• B = Border irregularity
• Borders of mole are not smooth
• C = Color
• Different colors in pigmented area
• D = Diameter
• Spot is larger then 6 mm in diameter
Figure 4.13c