GLASS

1. Introduction to glass
2. Types of glass and their composition
3. Forensic examination of glass fractures under different
conditions
4. Determination of direction of impact : hackle ,
fluorescence , physical matching , density comparison ,
physical measurements , refractive index by
refactormeter , elemental analysis , and interpretation
of glass evidence case study.
INTRODUCTION OF GLASS:
 Glass is so unique that it cannot be simply defined. It is neither a crystalline
solid nor a liquid; it is a disordered, amorphous solid. It is this amorphous
structure that gives glass its unique properties. Neither can the composition of
glass be described since there are infinite varieties of glass.
 Glass is commonly categorized as a type of ceramic, but it is not like any other
ceramics. Ceramics generally have a crystalline structure and are opaque,
whereas glass has a non-crystalline atomic structure and is transparent.
Furthermore, glass exhibits a range of remarkable properties that set it apart
from other ceramics. In a perfect state, glass is mechanically very strong, even
when subjected to extreme changes in temperature, and has a hard surface that
is resistant to abrasion and corrosion. Paradoxically, it is also elastic, being
able to give under stress (up to a breaking point) and then rebound to its
original shape. Glass also has extensive optical properties, is heat-absorbent
and an electrical insulator.
TYPES OF GLASS
1.FLAT GLASS:
Flat glass is the basic first product from the float process of making glass. It has a uniform
thickness and makes the base for more advanced types of glass through further processing.
This glass tends to break into long shards, and will commonly be used in double-glazing
following further treatment.
Flat Glass Fact
 This glass type is the base material of many common products we see today, including:
windscreens, home windows, bus stops, electronics, appliances, and much more.
TYPES OF GLASS
2. TOUGHENED GLASS
 Toughened Glass can be used in a range of ways; for shower doors, glass furniture, shelves etc,
and holds the advantage of being far more resistant to breaks. The cooling process in toughened
glass creates counteracting stresses meaning that if it does break, the glass will shatter into small,
square fragments rather than shards, decreasing the risk of injury.
 Blasting the surface of glass with sand gives it a translucent milky-white appearance, making it a
popular technique used for shower doors or front doors where privacy is required, but also some
light. This technique can be used against a whole sheet of glass, or can be used to create patterns
using a sand-resistant mask.
 Toughened Glass Fact
 The creation of toughened glass has been credited to French inventor, Francois Barthelemy Alfred
Royer de la Bastie, patented in 1874.
TYPES OF GLASS
3. PATTERNED GLASS
 Patterned glass is typically produced by passing heated glass through rollers containing
a regular pattern to be imprinted upon the glass. This type of glass is often used for
bathroom windows or doors where, like sandblasted glass, light may be required but
not total transparency.
 Patterned Glass Fact
 Using machine rolling to create patterned glass was introduced in 1888 by the Chance
brothers from Yorkshire.
TYPES OF GLASS
4. LAMINATED GLASS
 Laminated glass is a common option where increased security may be needed, for
example, for front doors, store window fronts or car windscreens. Laminated glass is
held together by an interlayer, meaning that it will not shatter on impact, reducing the
risk of break-ins and any hazards caused by shards of shattered glass.
 Laminated Glass Fact
 Laminated glass was invented by accident when French chemist Edouard Benedictus
knocked over a lab flask, only to notice it did not shatter due to the residue of nitrate
cellulose left on the inside.
TYPES OF GLASS:
5. MIRRORED GLASS
 There are many types of glass available and another type is mirrored glass. Mirrored
glass is quite simply a mirror – and can be produced in all sizes, from small bathroom
mirrors to full-length wardrobe doors. It is made by applied a metal coating to one
side of the glass, typically made of silver, chrome, gold or aluminium.
 Mirrored Glass Fact
 The very first mirrors were no more complex than water collected in a vessel, or
polished stone and metal.
TYPES OF GLASS:
6. COATED GLASS
 Coated glass is modified flat glass to give it specific characteristics, for example to
make it insulating and resistant to infra-red. It is commonly used for double glazed
windows to improve home insulation.
 Coated Glass Fact
 Applying a coating to glass can help boost the thermal efficiency of your home and
reduce energy bills.
TYPES OF GLASS
7. TINTED GLASS:
 If privacy is your priority, then tinted glass is the ideal choice for any doors or windows
in your home or business. Though tinted glass keeps out prying eyes, it still allows
plenty of natural sunlight to filter through, whilst reducing the discomfort of the sun’s
glare.
 Tinted glass can also lessen the amount of harmful UV filtering through, which will
have health benefits for all the family.
 Tinted Glass Fact
 Small amounts of metal oxides are added to the glass composition to give tinted glass
its characteristic darker hue.
TYPES OF GLASS
8. SANDBLASTED GLASS:
 Also called glass carving, this option offers the perfect balance between beauty and
privacy. This glass is blasted with an abrasive material at high pressure to create a
unique mist effect. This frosted look can be used to protect the privacy of bathroom
windows and shower doors, and can be also formed into elegant patterns to produce
decorative panes of glass to enhance your interior design.
 Sandblasted Glass Fact
 Sandblasted, or frosted, glass works by scattering light that passes through it, thus
blurring the appearance of the image on the other side.
COMPOSITION
Glass compositions and applications
1. Oxide glasses-Silica-based
The various glass families of commercial interest, most are based on silica, or silicon
dioxide (SiO2), a mineral that is found in great abundance in nature—particularly in quartz
and beach sands. Glass made exclusively of silica is known as silica glass, or vitreous silica
. (It is also called fused quartz if derived from the melting of quartz crystals.) Silica glass is
used where high service temperature, very high thermal shock resistance, high chemical
durability, very low electrical conductivity, and good ultraviolet transparency are desired.
However, for most glass products, such as containers, windows, and lightbulbs, the
primary criteria are low cost and good durability, and the glasses that best meet these
criteria are based on the soda-lime-silica system. Examples of these glasses are shown in
the table Composition of representative oxide glasses.
 COMPOSITION
2.Nonoxide glasses
A . Heavy-metal fluoride glasses
Of the non oxide glasses, the heavy-metal fluoride glasses (HMFGs) have potential use in
telecommunications fibres, owing to their relatively low optical losses. However, they are also
extremely difficult to form and have poor chemical durability. The most studied HMFG is the
so-called ZBLAN group, containing fluorides of zirconium, barium, lanthanum, aluminum, and
sodium.
 COMPOSITION
B.Glassy metals
Another nonoxide group is the glassy metals, formed by high-speed quenching of fluid
metals. Perhaps the most studied glassy metal is a compound of iron, nickel, phosphorus,
and boron that is commercially available as Metglas (trademark). It is used in flexible
magnetic shielding and power transformers.
COMPOSITION
C.Semiconducting solids
A final class of nonoxide, noncrystalline substances is the chalcogenides, which are formed
by melting together the chalcogen elements sulfur, selenium, or tellurium with elements
from group V (e.g., arsenic, antimony) and group IV (e.g., germanium) of the
periodic table. Owing to their semiconducting properties, chalcogenides have found use in
threshold and memory switching devices and in xerography. A related end-member of this
group is the elemental amorphous semiconductor solids, such as amorphous silicon (a-Si)
and amorphous germanium (a-Ge). These materials are the basis of most photovoltaic
applications, such as the solar cells in pocket calculators. Amorphous solids have a
liquidlike atomic order but are not considered to be true glasses because they do not exhibit
a continuous transformation into the liquid state upon heating
COMPOSITION
D.Glass ceramics
In some glasses it is possible to bring about a certain degree of crystallization in the
normally random atomic structure. Glassy materials that exhibit such a structure are called
glass ceramics. Commercially useful glass ceramics are those in which a high density of
uniformly sized, nonoriented crystals has been achieved through the bulk of the material,
rather than at the surface or in discrete regions. Such products invariably possess strengths
far exceeding those of the parent glass or of the corresponding ceramic. Outstanding
examples are Corning Ware (trademark) cooking vessels and Dicor (trademark) dental
implants.
COMPOSITION
E.Glass composites
In addition to the glass ceramics, useful products of glass may be made by mixing ceramic,
metal, and polymer powders. Most products made from such blends, or composites, exhibit
properties that are combinations of the properties of the various ingredients. Good
examples of composite products are glass-fibre reinforced plastics, for use as tough elastic
solids, and thick-film conductor, resistor, and dielectric pastes with tailored electrical
properties for the packaging of microcircuits.
COMPOSITION
F.Natural glasses
Several inorganic glasses are found in nature. These include obsidians (volcanic glasses),
fulgarites (formed by lightning strikes), tektites found on land in Australasia and
associated microtektites from the bottom of the Indian Ocean, moldavites from central
Europe, and Libyan Desert glass from western Egypt. Owing to their extremely high
chemical durability under the sea, microtektite compositions are of significant commercial
interest for hazardous waste immobilization or conversion.
COMPOSITION
1. Commercial glass composition
Commercial glasses may be divided into soda–lime–silica glasses and special glasses, most
of the tonnage produced being of the former class. Such glasses are made from three main
materials—sand (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), limestone (calcium carbonate, or CaCO3), and
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3).
COMPOSITION
2. Optical and high-temperature glass
Glasses of very different, and often much more expensive, compositions are made when
special physical and chemical properties are necessary. For example, in optical glasses, a
wide range of compositions is required to obtain the variety of refractive index and
dispersion needed if the lens designer is to produce multicomponent lenses that are free
from the various faults associated with a single lens, such as chromatic aberration. High-
purity, ultratransparent oxide glasses have been developed for use in fibre-optic
telecommunications systems, in which messages are transmitted as light pulses over glass
fibres.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

Forensic glass analysis is the process by which forensic scientists collect and analyze
glass found at a crime scene to give them information about the crime. Glass evidence can
be highly useful for obtaining information following crimes such as burglary and break-ins,
automobile accidents, hit-and-runs, and assaults where something made of glass may have
been used.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

Forensic glass analysis is used to detect the origin of the glass, compare fragments
recovered at a scene to those found on a suspect, determine the angle and force required to
break the glass, and establish the sequence of events. There are various types of glass, and
they provide all kinds of information. For instance, some types of glass are made of
different substances, fracture differently, and have different melting points. This and other
information gives forensic scientists useful clues about what may have happened and who
did it.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

FORENSIC GLASS ANALYSIS

Forensic glass analysis is the application and analysis of glass to determine details about a
crime. Glass evidence comes in many forms in various types of criminal cases. Glass can be
analyzed to understand its origin using comparative analysis which may include measurements
relating to physical match, refractive index, density and elemental analysis. It is also possible to
analyze glass fractures to better understand the angle, direction and sequence of force as well as
the projectile used.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

IN CASE WORK:
Glass analysis is applicable to a wide range of forensic cases. In burglary or rape cases,
window pane may be broken and analyzed. In assaults, broken glass bottles may be found
and analyzed in addition to glass fragments that may remain on clothing. Glass analysis is
also applicable to motor vehicle crashes, particularly hit and run cases, as glass from
headlights can be analyzed.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

COLLECTION FROM CRIME SCENES:

Depending on the form of the evidence, glass analysis can be collected in several ways.
When possible, it is preferred that the entire item of evidence, such as a glass fragment or
sweater with glass shards, is collected.Glass evidence can also take on the form of
trace evidence. In these cases, trace evidence lifters, forensic vacuums or tweezers can aid
in the collection of the glass evidence. Small glass fragments or shards can be secured in a
pharmacist's fold and in an envelope. It is also important that the location from where the
glass was recovered is noted. When it is suspected that an individual has small glass
fragments on their person, their hair can be combed and caught on examination paper in an
attempt to recover potential glass fragments. In addition to combing the hair, the individual
can remove their clothes on examination paper which can then be sealed and saved for
examination at a later time.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS FRACTURES
UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

METHODS OF ANALYSIS:
A.COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
It is possible to compare multiple glass fragments using the techniques described below in
order to understand if the glass fragments can be excluded as originating from the same
source.
1.Physical match
Two glass fragments may be physically matched with one another. This may exclude the
glass fragments from having originated from a different source.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

2.Refractive index
The refractive index of a glass fragment may be determined and compared with that of
another glass fragment in order to understand if they can be excluded from having
originated from the same source.The refractive index can be determined using immersion
methods as well as automated methods. Immersion methods entail the use of liquids with
known refractive indices. The glass fragments are immersed in the liquids, often oils, and
Becke lines are examined according to the Becke line test. Automated methods entail a
camera and computer which make measurements of glass fragments in varying
temperatures.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

3.Density
The density of a glass fragment can be determined using a density meter. The density of a
glass fragment will depend on the batch characteristics and composition. Although, density
is tested less frequently than refractive indices, it can be used to determine if two glass
fragments more likely originated from a different source.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS
There are many techniques that can be used for elemental analysis of glass. These include
scanning electron microscopy-x-ray spectroscopy, x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy,
mass spectrometry, optical emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma
methods.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

1.Glass fractures
Glass fractures can be analyzed in order to determine which side of the glass was force
applied that ultimately resulted in its fracture. For example, determining which side of a
window was smashed in order to cause it to break may help crime scene investigators
understand if someone broke in through the window or broke out through it. On the other
hand, if there are multiple fractures on a pane of glass, they can be analyzed to determine
what was the order in which the fractures were made. When a projectile, such as a rock or
bullet, hits a pane of glass, radial and concentric fractures form. These are often the key
components of glass fracture analysis
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

2.Projectile
When a high velocity projectile, such as a bullet, fractures a pane of glass, it can leave
what is known as a cone fracture. A cone fracture is a hole in a glass pane surrounded by
radial and concentric fractures. The hole is narrower at the point of entry and widens
towards the exit point, giving the appearance of a cone
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

3.Angle of force
The shape of the hole formed by a projectile may also give information about the angle
through which the force was delivered. A symmetrical hole could be formed by a projectile
hitting the glass at a 90-degree angle, while elliptical holes can be formed by projectiles
hitting a pane of glass from the left or right side.
4.Direction of force
The side from which a glass fracture was made can be determined by examining the radial
fractures of a glass fracture. The 3R rule is used to make a determination about which
direction a fracture was formed from. The 3R rule states "radial fractures
make right angles to the rear." By examining the radial fractures and the direction in
which they form a right angle, the rear side of the pane of glass (opposite the side the force
was applied) can be determined.
FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS
FRACTURES UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

5.Sequence of force
When multiple fractures are made to a pane of glass, it is possible to understand the order
in which those fractures were made by examining the radial fractures. Radial fractures end
when they cross paths with another existing fracture line, thereby producing a method to
understand the order in which multiple fractures were made.
DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION OF
IMPACT :
1.HACKLE :
Glass hackles are a series of parallel marks that appear on the surface of broken glass and
can indicate the direction of a fracture
Appearance:
Hackles appear as deep ridges and valleys that radiate away from the point of crack
initiation. They can be used to determine the direction of the fracture.
There are two types of hackle marks:
Twist hackle: Appears when tensile stress tilts from the crack surface
Mist hackle: Also known as a velocity hackle, this appears around the origin of the
fracture
DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION OF
IMPACT :
FLUORESCENCE:
Fluorescence in glass is generated by point defects, such as color centers, which are caused
by rare earth elements and other impurities. The fluorescence behavior of glass can be
affected by the process technology used and the purity of the raw materials.
DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION OF IMPACT :

2.PHYSICAL MATCHING:
Physical matching of glass is a forensic technique that involves fitting the edges of broken
glass fragments together to determine if they were once part of the same object.
• Direct physical match: The edges of two glass fragments fit together perfectly.
• Indirect physical match: The fragments are matched based on surface features like
scratches or extrusion marks.
• Lateral fit: A complementary fit along the broken edges of at least 1/4 inch establishes
that the fragments were once part of the same object.
DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION OF
IMPACT :
3.DENSITY COMPARISON:
Densities of the glass vary depending on the ratio and type of the main components of the
composition. The densities of various glass types range from 2.2g/cm 3 to 3.2g/cm 3 . In
some special glass types it reaches densities of 8g/cm 3 . The densities of normal glasses
used in buildings are 2.5g/cm 3 .
The density of an unknown sample of glass is determined by placing a glass sample into
suspension in a liquid solution. The density of that liquid is then either measured directly or
used comparatively with another sample of glass.
DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION OF
IMPACT :
4.PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS:
• Thickness
• Glass thickness can be measured with ultrasonic or magnetic thickness gauges. These
gauges are accurate, reliable, and don't damage the glass.
• Thermal expansion
• The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) measures how much glass expands when the
temperature increases. Glass expands less than most metals and plastics, so it's important
to consider this when framing glass.
• Thermal conductivity
• Thermal conductivity measures how well glass conducts heat. This is important if the
glass will be exposed to high temperatures or infrared applications.
• Optical properties
• Glass transmission and reflection properties can be measured over a wide wavelength
range. Transmission measurements can be used to determine the Fe2+/Fe3+ ratio in glass
and the water concentration in quartz glass
DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION OF
IMPACT :
5.REFRACTIVE INDEX BY REFACTORMETER :
The refractive index of glass can be measured using a refractometer, which is a device that
can quickly and accurately measure the refractive index of a material.
Refractive index:
The refractive index of glass is a measure of how much light bends when it enters the
glass. The refractive index of glass is typically between 1.4 and 1.7.
Refraction:
Refraction is more evident in solids than in liquids or gases, which makes glass a good
medium for demonstrating refraction.
For glass, the range is between 1.4-1.7. Refractive index measurement is affected by types
of glass according to its color, manufacturer and thickness. Temperature, T and wavelength,
λ of light influence the refractive index of glass.
DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION OF
IMPACT :
6.INTERPRETATION OF GLASS EVIDENCE CASE STUDY:
Glass evidence comes in many forms in various types of criminal cases. Glass can be
analyzed to understand its origin using comparative analysis which may include
measurements relating to physical match, refractive index, density and elemental analysis.
 Glass evidence can be interpreted to help reconstruct events and determine the source of
glass fragments. Here are some ways glass evidence is analyzed and interpreted:
• Glass fracture analysis: This method can help determine the direction and angle of the
force that broke the glass, as well as the order in which the fractures occurred. For
example, if a window was broken, it can help determine if someone broke in or out.
• Refraction index: This is the most common optical property measured during forensic
glass examination.
• Scanning electron microscope: This method can help identify the type of glass and
where it came from.
• Elemental analysis: This is the most informative step in glass comparisons.
• Comparison of nonoptical physical properties: These properties include surface
curvature, texture, and special treatments. For example, frosted glass cannot be a match to