Tanta University Faculty of Engineering

‫بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم‬

 Sulphate Attack on
Concrete – Process and
Control of Sulphate Attack

Eng. Ahmed F. Sallam

Assistant Lecturer of Geotechnical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University
M.Sc. Civil Engineering, Tanta University, 2016
 Under Supervision of

Prof. / Alaa al-Sharqawi

Professor and Director, Material Engineering
Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University
 Sulphate Attack on
Concrete – Process and
Control of Sulphate Attack
Content :
1.Process of Sulphate Attack on Concrete
2.Forms of Sulphate Attack on Concrete
3.What happens when sulphates get into concrete?
4.Sources of Sulphates in Concrete
5.Reactions of Sulphate Attack on Concrete
6.Main factors affecting sulphate attack are:
7.HOW TO PROTECT CONCRETE FROM SULPHATE ATTACK?
Process of
Sulphate Attack on
Concrete
Process of Sulphate Attack on Concrete
Sulphate attack on concrete is a chemical breakdown mechanism where
sulphate ions attack components of the cement paste. The compounds
responsible for sulphate attack on concrete are water-soluble sulphate-
containing salts, such as alkali-earth (calcium, magnesium) and alkali
(sodium, potassium) sulphates that are capable of chemically reacting with
components of concrete. These reactions can induce sufficient pressure to
disrupt the cement paste, resulting in loss of cohesion and strength.

Forms of Sulphate Attack on Concrete

1. The chemical form of the sulphate
2. The atmospheric environment which the concrete is exposed to.
1. Calcium sulfate attacks calcium aluminate
hydrate and forms ettringite.

2. Sodium sulfate reacts with calcium hydroxide and

calcium aluminate hydrate forming ettringite and
gypsum.

3. Magnesium sulfate attacks in a manner similar to

sodium sulfate and forms ettringite, gypsum, and
brucite (magnesium hydroxide).

Brucite forms primarily on the concrete surface, consumes calcium

hydroxide, lowers the pH of the pore solution, and then decomposes the
calcium silicate hydrates.
Environmental conditions have a
great influence on sulfate attack. The
attack is greater in concrete exposed
to wet/dry cycling as shown in figure.
When water evaporates, sulfates can
accumulate at the concrete surface,
increasing in concentration and their
potential for causing deterioration
which is a physical phenomenon
Hanson, 1966. The bases of these concrete posts have
suffered from sulfate attack.

Porous concrete is susceptible to weathering caused by salt crystallization.

Examples of salts known to cause weathering of field concrete include sodium
carbonate and sodium sulfate (laboratory studies have also related saturated
solutions of calcium chloride and other salts to concrete deterioration). Under
drying conditions, salt solutions can rise to the surface by capillary action and, as
a result of surface evaporation, the solution phase becomes supersaturated and
salt crystallization occurs, sometimes generating pressures large enough to cause
cracking and scaling (Mehta 2000).
 What happens when sulphates get into
1. concrete?
It combines with the C-S-H, or concrete paste, and begins destroying the paste
that holds the concrete together.
2. These new crystals occupy empty space, and as they continue to form, they
cause the paste to crack, further damaging the concrete.

Sources of Sulphates in Concrete

1. Internal Sources
1.Portland cement might be over-sulphated.
2.presence of natural gypsum in the aggregate.
3.Admixtures also can contain small amounts of sulphates.
2. External Sources
1.Soil may contain excessive amounts of gypsum or other sulphate.
2.Ground water be transported to the concrete foundations, retaining
walls, and other underground structures.
3.Industrial waste waters.
Reactions of Sulphate Attack on Concrete
Sulphate attack process decrease the durability of concrete by changing the chemical nature
of the cement paste, and of the mechanical properties of the concrete.

1. Chemical Process of Sulphate Attack

The sulphate ion + hydrated calcium aluminate and/or the calcium hydroxide components of hardened
cement paste + water = (calcium sulphoaluminate hydrate)

C3A.Cs.H18 + 2CH +2s+12H = C3A.3Cs.H32

C3A.CH.H18 + 2CH +3s + 11H = C3A.3Cs.H32
The sulphate ion + hydrated calcium aluminate and/or the calcium hydroxide components of hardened
cement paste + water = gypsum (calcium sulphate hydrate)

Na2SO4+Ca(OH)2 +2H2O = CaSO4.2H2O +2NaOH

MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 + 2H2O = CaSO4.2H2O + Mg(OH)2

Two forms of chemical reaction occurs depending on:

1.Concentration and source of sulphate ions .
2.Composition of cement paste in concrete.
2. Physical Process of Sulphate Attack
1.The complex physicochemical process of “sulphate attack” are interdependent as is the resulting
damage.
2.physical sulphate attack, often evidenced by bloom (the presence of sodium sulphates Na2SO4
and/or Na2SO4.10H2O) at exposed concrete surfaces.
3.It is not only a cosmetic problem, but it is the visible displaying of possible chemical and
microstructural problems within the concrete matrix.

Diagnosis of Sulphate Attack on Concrete

Spalling of concrete due to sulphate attack.

Main factors affecting sulphate attack are:
1. Type of Cement and its Content
The most important mineralogical phases
of cement that affect the intensity of
sulphate attack are: C3A, C3S/C2S ratio
and C4AF. From the view point of cement
chemistry, the magnitude of sulfate attack
depends on availability of Ca(OH)2 and
C3A in hydrated concrete. American
Standards suggest a limit on the (C3A) and
(2C3A + C4AF) contents of sulfate
resistant, type V, cements as 5% and 25%,
respectively, ASTM C 150-02 (2002) &
Al-Salami et al (2010).
Resistance to sulfates can best be achieved by
using a low water - to- cement ratio and a cement
with a limited amount of tricalcium aluminates. As
outlined in ASTM C 150, Type II cement contains
less than 8% C3A, and Type V cement contains
less than 5%. Cements meeting the ASTM C 1157
requirements of Type MS cement (moderate
sulfate resistant) and Type HS cement (high
sulfate resistant) can also be used to provide
sulfate resistance, as well as moderate sulfate-
resistant cements per ASTM C 595.
2. Fly ash addition
Silica fume is very effective in improving
sulfate resistance by converting calcium
hydroxide to CSH. Other pozzolans, such as fly
ash, can also improve sulfate resistance, but
some cautions are needed. Because of its low
calcium content, Class F fly ash is more
efficient than Class C fly ash in improving
sulfate resistance. However, some types of
Class F fly ash with a high alumina content
aren’t effective in improving sulfate resistance.
Low- calcium Class C fly ash is often effective,
but high-calcium Class C ash is often ineffective
and may decrease sulfate resistance. In general,
best results are achieved if fly ash is added to the
concrete rather than used as a cement
replacement, Depuy (1994).
3. Types of Sulphate and its Concentration
The sulphate attack tends to increase with an increase in the
concentration of the sulphate solution up to a certain level.

4. Other factors:
 The level of the water table and its seasonal variation
 The flow of groundwater and soil porosity
 The form of construction
 The quality of concrete
 HOW TO PROTECT CONCRETE FROM SULPHATE
ATTACK?
Sulphates present in soil or
water can cause serious
damages to concrete. The
methods given below can
be adopted to protect
concrete from sulphate
attack.

1. USE OF SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT

The most efficient method of resisting the sulphate attack is to use cement with
the low C3A content. It has been found that a C3A content of 7% gives a rough
division between cement of good and poor performance in sulphate waters.
2. QUALITY CONCRETE
A well designed, placed and compacted concrete which is dense
and impermeable exhibits a higher resistance to sulphate attack.
Similarly, a concrete with low water/cement ratio also
demonstrates a higher resistance to sulphate attack.

3. USE OF AIR-ENTRAINED ADMIXTURE

Use of air-entrainment to the extent of about 6% has beneficial
effect on the sulphate resisting qualities of concrete. The beneficial
effect is possibly due to reduction of segregation, improvement in
workability, reduction in bleeding and in general better
impermeability of concrete.
4. USE OF POZZOLANA
Incorporation of or replacing a part of cement by a pozzolanic
material reduces the sulphate attack. Admixing of Pozzolana
converts the leachable calcium hydroxide into non-leachable
cementitious product. This pozzolanic action is responsible for
impermeability of concrete. Secondly the removal of calcium
hydroxide reduces the susceptibility of concrete to attack by
magnesium sulphate.

5. HIGH PRESSURE STEAM CURING

High pressure steam curing improves the resistance of concrete to
sulphate attack. This improvement is due to the change of
C3AH6 into a less reactive phase and also to the removal or
reduction of calcium hydroxide by the reaction of silica which is
invariably mixed when high pressure steam curing method is
adopted.
6. USE OF HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT
The cause of great resistance shown by high alumina cement
to the action of sulphate is still not fully understood.
However, it is attributed in part to the absence of any free
calcium hydroxide in the set cement, in contrast to Portland
cement. High alumina cement contains approximately 40%
alumina, a compound very susceptible to sulphate attack,
when in normal Portland cement. But this percentage of
alumina present in high alumina cement behaves in a
different way. The primary cause of resistance is attributed to
formation of protective films which inhibit the penetration or
diffusion of sulphate ions into the interior. It should be
remembered that high alumina cement may not show higher
resistance to sulphate attack at higher temperature.
Thank you