Principles of Electric Circuits:

Conventional Current

Chapter 8
Circuit Theorems and Conversions
 Objectives
Describe the characteristics of a dc voltage source
Describe the characteristics of a current source
Perform source conversions
Apply the superposition theorem to circuit analysis
Apply Thevenin’s theorem to simplify a circuit for analysis
Apply Norton’s theorem to simplify a circuit
Apply the maximum power transfer theorem
Perform ∆-to-Y and Y-to-∆ conversions
 KCL AND KVL REVIEW

•
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) •
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

•
Rule: Algebraic sum of electrical current that merge in a •
Rule: The sum of voltages around a closed loop circuit is
common node of a circuit is zero. equal to zero.
 Summary: Voltage sources (1 of 3)
An ideal voltage source plots a vertical line on the V I
characteristic as shown for an ideal 6.0 V source.
Actual voltage sources include the internal source resistance,
which can drop a small voltage under load. The characteristic of
a non-ideal source is not vertical.
 Summary: Voltage sources (2 of 3)
A practical voltage source is drawn as an ideal source in series
with the source resistance. When the internal resistance is zero,
the source reduces to an ideal one.
 Summary: Voltage sources (3 of 3)
Example:
If the source resistance of a 5.0 V power supply is 0.5 Ω, what is
the voltage across a 68 Ω load?

Solution:
Use the voltage-divider
equation:
 RL 
VL   VS
 RL  RS 
 68  
  5 V = 4.96 V
 68   0.5  
 Summary: Current sources (1 of 3)
An ideal current source plots a horizontal line on the V I
characteristic as shown for the ideal 4.0 mA source.

Practical current sources have internal source resistance, which

takes some of the current. The characteristic of a practical source
is not horizontal.
 Summary: Current sources (2 of 3)
A practical current source is drawn as an ideal source with a
parallel source resistance. When the source resistance is infinite,
the current source is ideal.
 Summary: Current sources (3 of 3)
Example:
If the source resistance of a 10 mA current source is 4.7 kΩ, what
is the current in a 100 Ω load?
Solution:
Use the current-divider
equation:

 RS 
I L   IS
 RL  RS 
 4.7 k 
  10 mA = 9.8 mA
 100   4.7 k 
 Summary: Source conversions
Any voltage source with an internal resistance can be converted
to an equivalent current source and vice-versa by applying Ohm’s
law to the source. The source resistance, R S, is the same for
both.
VS
To convert a voltage source to a current source, IS 
RS

To convert a current source to a voltage source, VS  I S RS

Summary: Thevenin’s theorem (1 of 7)
Thevenin’s theorem states that any two-terminal, resistive circuit
can be replaced with a simple equivalent circuit when viewed
from two output terminals. The equivalent circuit is:
Summary: Thevenin’s theorem (2 of 7)
V TH is defined as the open circuit voltage between the two output
terminals of a circuit.

R TH is defined as the total resistance appearing between the two

output terminals when all sources have been replaced by their
internal resistances.
 Thevenin’s Theorem Strategy 1

Remove the load resistance.

Determine the open-circuit voltage (VOC ).
Zero the source.
Determine the open-circuit resistance ( ROC ).

13
 Thevenin’s Theorem Strategy 2

Remove the load resistance.

Determine the open-circuit voltage (VOC ).

14
 Thevenin’s Theorem Strategy 3

Remove the load resistance.

Determine the open-circuit voltage (VOC ).

Does current flow

through R2?

If a voltmeter was
connected to points
A & B, what would
it measure?

15
 Thevenin’s Theorem Strategy 4

Remove the load resistance.

Determine the open-circuit voltage (VOC ).
R3
VR 3  VS
R1  R3
6 kΩ
VR 3  12 V
3kΩ  6 kΩ

VOC VAB VR 3 8 V

VTH VOC

16
 Thevenin’s Theorem Strategy 5

Zero the source.

• Voltage sources are replaced with a short.
• Current sources are replaced with an open.
Determine the open-circuit resistance ( ROC ).

17
 Thevenin’s Theorem Strategy 6

Zero the voltage source.

Determine the open-circuit resistance ( ROC ).
1
ROC R2 
1 1

R1 R3
1
ROC 4 kΩ 
1 1

3kΩ 6 kΩ

ROC 6 kΩ
RTH ROC

18
 Thevenin’s Theorem 2

Used to replace any linear circuit with an

equivalent voltage source called VTH and an
equivalent resistance called RTH .

Original Circuit

Thevenin Equivalent
Circuit with RL

19
Thevenin’s Theorem 3

20
Summary: Thevenin’s theorem (3 of 7)
Example:
Find the Thevenin voltage and resistance for the circuit.

To find V TH, apply a voltage divider to R1 and R2.

 R2   27 k 
VTH  V 
 S   12 V 8.76 V
 R1  R2   10 k  27 k 

RTH 10 k  27 k 7.30 k

Summary: Thevenin’s theorem
Follow up: (4 of 7)
What is the voltage across R L?

Since we know the Thevenin circuit, the easiest way to answer

the question is to use it and apply the voltage divider theorem.

 RL 
VL   VTH
R
 TH  RL 

 68 k 
  8.76 V 7.91 V
 7.3 k  68 k 
Summary: Thevenin’s theorem (5 of 7)
Thevenin’s theorem is useful for solving the Wheatstone bridge.
One way to Thevenize the bridge is to create two Thevenin
circuits - from A to ground and from B to ground.

The resistance between point A and ground is R1||R3 and the

resistance from B to ground is R2||R4. The voltage on each side of
the bridge is found using the voltage divider rule.
Summary: Thevenin’s theorem (6 of 7)
Example:

For the bridge shown, R1||R3 = 165 Ω and R2||R4 = 179 Ω. The
voltage from A to ground (with no load) is 7.5 V and from
B to ground (with no load) is 6.87 V.

The Thevenin circuits for each side of the bridge are shown on
the following slide.
Summary: Thevenin’s theorem (7 of 7)

Putting the load on the Thevenin circuits and applying the

superposition theorem allows you to calculate the load current.
The load current is: 1.27 mA

The dual Thevenin circuits used in this analysis have the

advantage of retaining the ground from the original circuit.
 Summary: Norton’s theorem (1 of 4)
Norton’s theorem states that any two-terminal, resistive circuit
can be replaced with a simple equivalent circuit when viewed
from two output terminals. The equivalent circuit is:
 Summary: Norton’s theorem (2 of 4)
I N is defined as the output current when the output terminals are
shorted.

R N is defined as the total resistance appearing between the two

output terminals when all sources have been replaced by their
internal resistances.
 Norton’s Theorem 1

• Used to replace any linear circuit with an

equivalent current source called I N and an
equivalent resistance called RN .

28
 Norton’s Theorem Strategy 1

• Replace the load resistance with a short.

• Determine the current flowing through the short
( I SC ). Remove the short.
• Zero the voltage source.
• Determine the open-circuit resistance ( ROC ).

29
 Norton’s Theorem Strategy 1

• Replace the load resistance with a short.

• Determine the current flowing through the short
( I SC ). This is the Norton current ( I N ).
• Remove the short.

30
 Norton’s Theorem Strategy 3

• Replace the load resistance with a short.

• Determine the current flowing through the short
( I SC ). This is the Norton current ( I N ).
• Remove the short.

31
 Norton’s Theorem Strategy 4

• Replace the load resistance with a short.

• Determine the current flowing through the short
( I SC ) . This is the Norton current ( I N ).
• Remove the short.
1
Req 
1 1

R2 R3

1
Req 
1 1

4 kΩ 6 kΩ

Req 2.4 kΩ

32
 Norton’s Theorem Strategy 5

• Solving for I SC . 1
Req 
1 1

R2 R3
1
Req 
1 1

4 kΩ 6 kΩ
Req 2.4 kΩ

RT R1  R eq
RT 3kΩ  2.4 kΩ
RT 5.4 kΩ

33
 Norton’s Theorem Strategy 6

• Solving for I SC .

VS
IT 
RT
12 V
IT 
5.4 kΩ
IT 2.22 mA

Req 2.4 kΩ RT 5.4 kΩ

34
 Norton’s Theorem Strategy 7

• Solving for I SC .
Req
I SC  IT
R2
2.4 kΩ
I SC  2.22 mA
4 kΩ
I SC 1.33mA
I N I SC
Req 2.4 kΩ RT 5.4 kΩ
IT 2.22 mA

35
 Norton’s Theorem Strategy 8

• Zero the voltage source.

• Determine the open-circuit resistance ( ROC ).

36
 Norton’s Theorem Strategy 9

• Zero the voltage source.

• Determine the open-circuit resistance ( ROC ).
1
ROC R2 
1 1

R1 R3
1
ROC 4 kΩ 
1 1

3kΩ 6 kΩ

RN ROC 6 kΩ

The same technique was used to find R TH.

37
 Norton’s Theorem 2

• Used to replace any linear circuit with an equivalent current

source called IN and an equivalent resistance called RN.

Original Circuit

Norton Equivalent
Circuit with RL

38
Norton’s Theorem 3

39
 Thevenin – Norton Conversion

VTH
RTH RN VTH I N RN IN 
RTH

40
 Summary: Norton’s theorem (3 of 4)
What is the Norton current for the circuit? 17.9 mA
What is the Norton resistance for the circuit? 359 Ω

The Norton circuit is shown on the following slide.

 Summary: Norton’s theorem (4 of 4)
The Norton circuit (without the load) is:
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the
Thevenin resistance as seen from the load

and
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the
Norton’s resistance as seen from the load

𝐼 𝑁 𝑅𝑁 𝐼 𝑁 𝑅𝑁 𝐼 𝑁 𝑅𝑁
𝐼 𝐿= = =
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅 𝑁 2 𝑅𝑁

( )
2
2 2 𝐼 𝑁 𝑅𝑁
𝑃 𝐿= 𝐼 𝐿 𝑅 𝐿 =𝐼 𝐿 𝑅 𝑁 = 𝑅𝑁
2 𝑅𝑁

and
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 1: For the network shown, determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer, and calculate the
maximum power delivered under these conditions.
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 1: For the network shown, determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer, and calculate the
maximum power delivered under these conditions.

Solution:
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 1: For the network shown, determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer, and calculate the
maximum power delivered under these conditions.

Solution:
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 1: For the network shown, determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer, and calculate the
maximum power delivered under these conditions.

Solution:
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 2: Find the value of RL in network shown for maximum power to RL , and determine the maximum power.
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 2: Find the value of RL in network shown for maximum power to RL , and determine the maximum power.

Solution:
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 2: Find the value of RL in network shown for maximum power to RL , and determine the maximum power.

Solution:
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 2: Find the value of RL in network shown for maximum power to RL , and determine the maximum power.

Solution:
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 2: Find the value of RL in network shown for maximum power to RL , and determine the maximum power.

Solution:
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 2: Find the value of RL in network shown for maximum power to RL , and determine the maximum power.

Solution:
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 2: Find the value of RL in network shown for maximum power to RL , and determine the maximum power.

Solution:
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
EXAMPLE 2: Find the value of RL in network shown for maximum power to RL , and determine the maximum power.

Solution:
Summary: Maximum power transfer
(1 of 5)
The maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when
the load resistance is equal to the internal source resistance.

The maximum power transfer theorem assumes the source

voltage and resistance are fixed.
Summary: Maximum power transfer
(2 of 5)
Example:
What is the power delivered to the matching load?

Solution:

The voltage to the load is 5.0 V. The power delivered is

5.0 V 
2
V2
PL   = 0.5 W
RL 50 
Summary: Maximum power transfer
(3 of 5)
You can view a plot of power as a function of resistance for a
given circuit using a graphics calculator. Let’s graph the data for
the previous problem over a series of load resistors using the T
I84 Plus C E calculator. (This procedure is specific to this
calculator.)
Store 10 in a variable named V (the Thevenin voltage) and 50 in
a variable named R (the Thevenin resistance). To enter the value
of V, press

Enter the equation as Y1 = (V2/(R2 +2R X + X2))X, which is the

equation for power to the load (Y1) as a function of load
resistance (see Example 8-18 in the text.)
Summary: Maximum power transfer
(4 of 5)
Set up the parameters for your graph by pressing .
A sample of window settings for this problem are shown to the
right. When you set ∆X (the cursor increment), the X MAX may
change depending on the input parameters. The settings shown
will trace resistance values in 2 Ω increments.
Summary: Maximum power transfer
(5 of 5)
Press an to show the plot and parameters.
d
The cursor can be moved to display different values. The position
shown indicates that a load resistance of 142 Ω will dissipate 385
mW of power.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

A technique called " superposition" is used to solve for current flow through,
and the voltage drops across, any resistor in a multiple source circuit.
The strategy is to analyze the circuit using only one of the sources at a time.
The currents are then added and used to describe the original circuit.
Follow these steps:
1. Replace all but one of the voltage sources with a "short". ( current sources are replaced with an " open".)
2. Solve for the current flowing through each resistor.
3. Select the next source and repeat until all sources have been used.
4. Add all the currents for each resistor and label the original circuit .
 EXAMPLE:
Solve for the current flowing through each resistor and the
voltage drop across each resistor.
 Summary: Superposition theorem
The superposition theorem is a way to determine currents and
voltages in a linear circuit that has multiple sources by taking one
source at a time and algebraically summing the results.

Example:
What does the ammeter read for I2? (See next slide for the
method and the answer).
 Summary
What does the ammeter read for I2?

Set up a table of pertinent information and solve for each

quantity listed:
 Summary: ∆-to-Y and Y-to-∆
conversion (1 of 2)
The ∆-to-Y and Y-to-∆ conversion formulas allow a three
terminal resistive network to be replaced with an equivalent
network.
For the ∆-to-Y conversion, each resistor in the Y is equal to the
product of the resistors in the two adjacent ∆ branches divided by
the sum of all three ∆ resistors.
RA RC
For example, R1 
RA  RB  RC
 Summary: ∆-to-Y and Y-to-∆
conversion (2 of 2)
The ∆-to-Y and Y-to-∆ conversion formulas allow a three
terminal resistive network to be replaced with an equivalent
network.
For the Y-to-∆ conversion, each resistor in the ∆ is equal to the
sum of all products of Y resistors, taken two at a time divided by
the opposite Y resistor.

R1 R2  R2 R3  R1 R3
For example, RA 
R2
 Y- (T- ) AND -Y ( -T)
CONVERSIONS
 Circuit configurations are often encountered in which the resistors do not appear to be in series or
parallel.
 Under these conditions, it may be necessary to convert the circuit from one form to another to solve for
any unknown quantities if mesh or nodal analysis is not applied.

 Two circuit configurations that often account for these difficulties are the wye (Y) and delta ()
configurations,
 They are also referred to as the tee (T) and pi (), respectively, as indicated in Figure. Note that
the pi is actually an inverted delta.
Y- (T- ) AND -Y ( -T)
CONVERSIONS
Y- (T- ) AND -Y ( -T)
CONVERSIONS
Y- (T- ) AND -Y ( -T)
CONVERSIONS
Y- (T- ) AND -Y ( -T)
CONVERSIONS
Y- (T- ) AND -Y ( -T)
CONVERSIONS
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
Delta to Wye Conversion
 Delta to Wye Conversion

Subtracting Eq. (3) from Eq. (1) and adding the resulting
equation to Eq. (1) results in :-
 Delta to Wye Conversion

Similarly,

and,
 Delta to Wye Conversion

Similarly,

and,
 Delta to Wye Conversion

Similarly,

and,
 Delta to Wye Conversion

Similarly,

and,
Wye to Delta Conversion
Wye to Delta Conversion
Wye to Delta Conversion
Wye to Delta Conversion
 Wye to Delta Conversion
Using the previous sets of equations, then
 Wye to Delta Conversion
Using the previous sets of equations, then
Wye to Delta Conversion
Wye to Delta Conversion
Wye to Delta Conversion
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
The Y and networks are said to be balanced when
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
The Y and networks are said to be balanced when
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
The Y and networks are said to be balanced when
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
The Y and networks are said to be balanced when
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
The Y and networks are said to be balanced when
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
The Y and networks are said to be balanced when

Under these conditions, conversion formulas become

 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Convert the network in Figure shown to an
equivalent Y network.
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Convert the network in Figure shown to an
equivalent Y network.
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Convert the network in Figure shown to an
equivalent Y network.
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Convert the network in Figure shown to an
equivalent Y network.
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Convert the network in Figure shown to an
equivalent Y network.
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Convert the network in Figure shown to an
equivalent Y network.
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Transform the wye network in Figure shown to a
delta network.
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Transform the wye network in Figure shown to a
delta network.
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Transform the wye network in Figure shown to a
delta network.
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Transform the wye network in Figure shown to a
delta network.
Solution:-
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹 𝟑 𝑹 𝟏
𝑹𝒂=
𝑹𝟏

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹 𝟐 𝑹 𝟑+ 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏
𝑹 𝒃=
𝑹𝟐

𝑹 𝟏 𝑹 𝟐+ 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏
𝑹 𝒄=
𝑹𝟑
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Transform the wye network in Figure shown to a
delta network.
Solution:-

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹 𝟐 𝑹 𝟑+ 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏
𝑹 𝒃=
𝑹𝟐

𝑹 𝟏 𝑹 𝟐+ 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏
𝑹 𝒄=
𝑹𝟑
140
Ω
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Transform the wye network in Figure shown to a
delta network.
Solution:-

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹 𝟐 𝑹 𝟑+ 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑹 𝒃= = =𝟕𝟎 Ω
𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝟎

𝑹 𝟏 𝑹 𝟐+ 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏
𝑹 𝒄=
𝑹𝟑
140
70 Ω
Ω
 Y- AND -Y CONVERSIONS
Example Transform the wye network in Figure shown to a
delta network.
Solution:-

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹 𝟐 𝑹 𝟑+ 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑹 𝒃= = =𝟕𝟎 Ω
𝑹𝟐 𝟐𝟎

35
𝑹 𝟏 𝑹 𝟐+ 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝟎 Ω
𝑹 𝒄= = =𝟑𝟓 Ω
𝑹𝟑 𝟒𝟎
140
70 Ω
Ω
 Key Terms (1 of 2)
Current source A device that ideally provides a constant value
of current regardless of the load.
Maximum Transfer of maximum power from a source
power transfer to a load occurs when the load resistance
equals the internal source resistance.

Norton’s A method for simplifying a two-terminal

theorem linear circuit to an equivalent circuit with
only a current source in parallel with a
resistance.
Superposition A method for analysis of circuits with more
theorem than one source.
 Key Terms (2 of 2)
Terminal The concept that when any given load resistance
equivalency is connected to two sources, the same load
voltage and load current are produced by both
sources.
Thevenn’s A method for simplifying a two-terminal linear
theorem circuit to an equivalent circuit with only a voltage
source in series with a resistance.
Voltage A device that ideally provides a constant value
source of voltage regardless of the load.
 Quiz (1 of 11)
1. The source resistance from a 1.50 V D-cell is 1.5 Ω. The
voltage that appears across a 75 Ω load will be
a. 1.47 V

b. 1.50 V

c. 1.53 V

d. 1.60 V
 Quiz (2 of 11)
2. The internal resistance of an ideal current source
a. is 0 Ω

b. is 1 Ω

c. is infinite

d. depends on the source

 Quiz (3 of 11)
3. The superposition theorem cannot be applied to
a. circuits with more than two sources

b. nonlinear circuits

c. circuits with current sources

d. ideal sources
 Quiz (4 of 11)
4. The circuit for a Thevenin equivalent is a
a. resistor in series with a voltage source

b. resistor in parallel with a voltage source

c. resistor in series with a current source

d. resistor in parallel with a current source

 Quiz (5 of 11)
5. The circuit for a Norton equivalent is a
a. resistor in series with a voltage source

b. resistor in parallel with a voltage source

c. resistor in series with a current source

d. resistor in parallel with a current source

 Quiz (6 of 11)
6. A signal generator has an output voltage of 2.0 V with no
load. When a 600 Ω load is connected to it, the output drops
to 1.0 V. The Thevenin resistance of the generator is

a. 300 Ω

b. 600 Ω

c. 900 Ω

d. 1200 Ω.
 Quiz (7 of 11)
7. A signal generator has an output voltage of 2.0 V with no
load. When a 600 Ω load is connected to it, the output drops
to 1.0 V. The Thevenin voltage of the generator is
a. 1.0 V

b. 2.0 V

c. 4.0 V

d. not enough information to tell.

 Quiz (8 of 11)
8. A Wheatstone bridge is shown with the Thevenin circuit as viewed with
respect to ground. The total Thevenin resistance (R TH + R TH’) is
a. 320 W

b. 500 W

c. 820 W

d. 3.47 kW.
 Quiz (9 of 11)
9. The Norton current for the circuit is
a. 5.0 mA

b. 6.67 mA

c. 8.33 mA

d. 10 mA
 Quiz (10 of 11)
10. Maximum power is transferred from a fixed source when
a. the load resistor is ½ the source resistance

b. the load resistor is equal to the source resistance

c. the load resistor is twice the source resistance

d. none of the above

 Quiz (11 of 11)
Answers:
1. a

2. c

3. b

4. a

5. d

6. b

7. b

8. c

9. d

10. b