SHARNBASVA UNIVERSITY, KALABURAGI

SYLLABUS
MODULE-I
Semiconductor Diodes and Applications
• P-N junction diode: Characteristics and Parameters, Diode approximations.
• Applications of Diode : Introduction, Half wave rectifier, Full wave rectifier
(Analysis-Efficiency, Ripple factor), Full wave rectifier power supply.
• Zener Diodes: Junction Breakdown, Circuit Symbol and Package, Characteristics
and Parameters, Zener Diode Voltage Regulator.

MODULE-II
Bipolar junction Transistors
• BJT configuration: BJT Operation, BJT voltages and currents, BJT amplification,
Common Base, Common Emitter, Common Collector Characteristics. Relation
between α and β, Numerical examples as applicable, DC load line and bias point,
DC biasing circuit- fixed bias and voltage divider bias for common emitter
configuration.
 MODULE-III
Digital Electronics and Number Systems
Digital Electronics: Introduction, Switching and Logic Levels, Digital
Waveform. Number Systems: Decimal Number System, Binary Number
System, Octal Number System, Hexadecimal Number System.
Number base conversions: Binary to Decimal, Decimal to Binary,
Binary to Octal, Octal to Binary, Binary to Hexadecimal, Hexadecimal
to Binary, Decimal to Octal, Octal to Decimal, Decimal to Hexadecimal,
Hexadecimal to Decimal, Octal to Hexadecimal, Hexadecimal to octal.
Complement of Binary Numbers, Binary addition, Binary subtraction.
Boolean Algebra Theorems, De Morgan’s theorem.
Logic gates: Basic and Universal gates. Algebraic Simplification and
Implementation of Digital circuits using Basic & Universal Gates. Half
adder and Full adder Implementations
 MODULE-IV
• Special Semiconductor Devices: Construction and working
principles of LED, Seven Segment Display, Opto couplers, Relays.
• Transducers: Introduction, Capacitive Transducers, Thermal
transducers, Optoelectronic transducer, and Piezoelectric
transducers
MODULE-V
Communication Systems
Introduction, Block diagram of communication system, Modulation,
Need for Modulation, Types of modulation, Analysis of AM and FM,
Generation and detection of AM and FM.
• Assignments
– Assignment carries 35 marks.
– Final assignment marks= Total assignment marks
– Total no. of class
assignments
• Attendance
– Class Participation: 85%

• You may get detained if you miss (more than) ¼ of

the whole classes

• Academic dishonesty (e.g. cheating, copying, late

coming and etc.) will be taken seriously
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND
APPLICATIONS
 What Are Diodes Made Out Of?
• Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the two most common single
elements that are used to make Diodes.

• Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements, meaning they have 4
valence electrons.

• Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a group 5 element

• When dopants from groups 3 or 5 (in most cases) are added to Si or Ge, it
changes the properties of the material so we are able to make the P- and
N-type materials that become the diode.
 The PN Junction
• P type and N type semiconductors, taken separately are of very limited
use.
• The n-type and p-type materials are chemically combined with a special
fabrication technique to form a p-n junction.
• Such a semiconductor p-n junction forms a popular electronic device
called diode as shown in the figure below.

• In a p-n junction
– P-type material consists of large number of holes.
– N-type material consists of large number of electrons.
– Hence the overall distribution of charge carriers is non-uniform.
 The PN Junction
• Due to non-uniform charge distribution, the charge carriers start moving
from high concentration area towards the low concentration area.

• This is called diffusion.

• In unbiased (No External Voltage applied), the majority holes on p-side

diffuse into n-side while the majority electrons on n-side diffuse into p-
side.
In n-region:
Holes diffusing from p-side recombine
with free electrons the result of which is
positive immobile ions develop near the
junction in n-region.

In p-region:
Electrons diffusing from n-side recombine
with free holes the result of which is
negative immobile ions develop near the
junction in p-region.
 The PN Junction
• Due to diffusion of large number of holes from p-side into n-side and large
number of electrons from n-side into p-side:

– Positive charge (immobile ions) accumulates near the junction on n-side

– Negative charge(immobile inos) accumulates near the junction on p-side
– The positive charge developed on n-side repels the positively charged
holes from p-side and the diffusion stops.
– The negative charge developed on p-side repels the negatively charged
electrons from n-side and the diffusion stops.
– The positive and negative immobile charge developed near the junction
acts like a wall and stops further diffusion.
• This region is called depleted region /depletion layer/ space charge
region
– The potential difference across the depletion region is called barrier
potential/ junction potential /built-in potential/ cut-in potential.
 The PN Junction
• The barrier potential depends on:
– Type of semiconductor
– Donor impurity added
– Acceptor impurity added
– Temperature

• The barrier potential for Si is 0.7 V and for Ge 0.3 V

• The width of the depletion layer is about 0.5 to 1 micron.

• As temperature , the width of depletion region , barrier potential

• The barrier potential decreases by approximately 2.5 mV per degree

Celsius rise in temperature.
 The PN Junction Diode
• The p-n junction forms a popular semiconductor device called
p-n junction diode
• Figure shows the graphic symbol of pn-Junction Diode.

• The arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of

current flow when the diode is forward biased.
 The PN Junction Diode-Biasing
• Applying external d.c. voltage to any electronic device is called biasing.
• Depending on the polarity of the d.c. voltage applied externally to it, the
biasing is classified as
– Forward biasing and
– Reverse Biasing.

• Forward biasing of Diode:

– The external d.c. voltage is connected in such a way that p-region is
connected to positive and n region to negative of the d.c. voltage –
Forward Biasing
The PN Junction Diode-Biasing
• From the figure:
– The negative of battery
pushes the free electrons
against the barrier from n to
p region
– The positive of battery pushes
holes against barrier from p
to n region
– As applied voltage is
increased the depletion
region becomes very narrow
and majority charge carriers
can easily cross the junction.
• This is called forward
current
 The PN Junction Diode-Biasing
• Reverse biasing of Diode:
– The external d.c. voltage is connected in such a way that p-region is
connected to negative and n-region to positive of the d.c. voltage –
Reverse Biasing
– In reverse biasing, negative of battery attracts the holes in p region
and positive battery attracts the electrons in n region away from the
junction
• This widens the depletion region and barrier potential increases
• No majority charge carrier can cross the junction

h e
The PN Junction Diode-Biasing
• Due to increased barrier
potential, the free electrons on p-
side are dragged towards positive
while holes on n-side are dragged
towards negative of the battery
– This constitutes a current
called reverse current.
– It flows due to minority
charge carriers and hence its
magnitude is very very small.
I0 – For constant temperature,
the reverse current is almost
constant though applied
reverse bias voltage is
increased up to certain limit.
• This is called reverse
saturation current
 The PN Junction Diode- Breakdown
• Diode Breakdown:

– If reverse voltage is increased beyond particular value,

large reverse current can flow damaging the diode.

– This is called reverse breakdown of a diode

– Such a breakdown of a diode can take place due to the

following two effects
• Avalanche effect
• Zener effect
 The PN Junction Diode- Breakdown
• Breakdown Due to the Avalanche effect:
– If reverse voltage is increased at a particular value, velocity of minority
carriers increases
– Due to the kinetic energy associated with the minority carriers, more minority
carriers are generated when there is collision of minority carriers with the
atoms. The collision make the electrons to break the co-valent bonds
generating more minority charge carriers.
– This is called carrier multiplication
– Finally large number of minority carriers move across the junction, breaking
the p-n junction resulting in very large reverse current.
– This effect is called avalanche effect and the mechanism of destroying the
junction is called reverse breakdown of pn-junction.
– The voltage at which the breakdown of a p-n junction occurs is called reverse
breakdown voltage
 The PN Junction Diode- Breakdown
• Breakdown Due to the Zener effect:

– When a p-n junction is heavily doped the depletion region is very

narrow.

– The electric field is voltage per distance and due to narrow depletion
region and high reverse voltage, it is intense.

– Such an intense field is enough to pull the electrons out of the

valence bands of the stable atoms.

– Such a creation of free electrons is called zener effect.

 V-I Characteristics of Diode
• Figure shows V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode. The Forward-Bias
Region is determined by V > 0, The Reverse-Bias Region, determined by
–Vz< V< 0 and The Breakdown Region, determined by V < Vz.
V-I Characteristics of Diode
• Forward Bias:
– When diode is in forward
biased, no current flows until
the cut in voltage (0.3V for
Ge, 0.7 for Si) is overcome.
– There after the curve has a
linear rise and the current
increases, with the increase in
forward voltage like an
ordinary conductor.
– Above VF, the majority
carriers passing the junction
gain sufficient energy to
knock out the valence
electrons and make them free
for conduction.
– Therefore, the forward
current increases sharply
after VF
V-I Characteristics of Diode
• Reverse Bias:
– When diode is reverse biased,
potential barrier at the
junction increases thus
increasing the resistance and
this prevents current flow.
– However, the minority
carriers are accelerated by
the reverse voltage resulting
in a very small current
(REVERSE CURRENT) and it is
in the order of microamperes.
– When reverse voltage is
increased beyond a value,
called breakdown voltage, Vz
the reverse current increases
sharply
 V-I Characteristics of Diode
• Forward Resistance:
– The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode in forward biased
condition is called Forward Resistance
– Forward Resistance can be further divided into:
• Static Forward Resistance
• Dynamic Forward Resistance
• Static Forward Resistance:
• This is the forward resistance of p-n junction diode when p-n junction
is used in d.c. circuit and the applied forward voltage is d.c.
• This resistance is denoted as Rf and is calculated in forward bias region
• Rf= Forward d.c. voltage / Forward d.c. current
= VD / ID at point A

A
 V-I Characteristics of Diode
• Dynamic Forward Resistance:
• The resistance offered by the p-n junction under a.c conditions is
called dynamic resistance denoted by rf
• Dynamic Resistance of a P-N junction diode is the small change in
forward voltage to small change in forward current at a particular
operating point.
• rf = ∆Vf /∆ If = 1/slope of forward characteristics
 V-I Characteristics of Diode
• Reverse Resistance:
– The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode in reverse biased
condition is called Reverse Resistance
– The p-n junction offers large resistance in reverse biased condition
– Reverse Resistance can be further divided into:
• Reverse Static Resistance
• Reverse Dynamic Resistance
• Reverse Static Resistance:
• This is the reverse resistance of p-n junction diode when p-n junction
is used in d.c. circuit and the applied reverse voltage is d.c.
• This resistance is denoted as Rr
• It is ratio of applied reverse voltage to the reverse saturation current I0
• Rr= Reverse d.c. voltage / Reverse saturation current
= VD / I0 at some point along the curve
 V-I Characteristics of Diode
• Reverse Dynamic Resistance:

• This is the reverse resistance under the a.c. conditions, denoted as rr

– It is defined as the ratio of incremental change in the reverse voltage

applied to the corresponding change in the reverse current.

– rr = ∆Vr /∆ Ir = Change in reverse voltage/ Change in reverse current

 Diode Parameters
• The manufacturer of the diode provides detailed information about the
diode in the form of datasheet.

• The various diode parameters specified in the datasheet help us to select

the diode for a particular application

• The various diode parameters are:

– Reverse Saturation Current
– Reverse Breakdown Voltage
– Knee Voltage
– Maximum Forward Current
– Peak Inverse Voltage
– Maximum Power Rating
– Forward Voltage Drop
 Diode Parameters
• Reverse Saturation Current:
• The constant reverse current flowing through the diode when it is
reverse biased is called reverse saturation current.
• Reverse Breakdown Voltage:
• When the reverse voltage is increase at a certain value the breakdown
of diode occurs and reverse current increases very sharply. This is
called reverse breakdown voltage
• Knee Voltage:
• A small forward voltage applied to a forward biased diode at which
current starts increasing exponentially is called knee voltage of a diode
• Maximum Forward Current:
• The maximum current that a forward biased diode can withstand
before burning out due to high junction temperature is called
maximum forward current
• It is denoted as IF (max)
 Diode Parameters
• Peak Inverse Voltage:
• The maximum voltage applied to the diode in the reverse direction
without breakdown of the diode is called peak inverse voltage
• It is also called PIV rating of a diode.
• Maximum Power Rating:
• The maximum power that the diode can dissipate safely without
increasing the junction temperature above its limiting value is called
power rating (MPR) of a diode.
• It is measured in watts.
• Forward Voltage Drop:
• It is the maximum forward voltage drop specified at certain forward
current and temperature.
• It is denoted as VF
 Diode Current Equation
• The relationship between applied voltage V and the diode current I is exponential and is
mathematically given by the equation called diode current equation. It is expressed as,
I = I0 (eV/VT – 1)

where, I0 = Reverse Saturation Current (In Amperes)

Ƞ = 1 (For Germanium diode) and 2 (For Silicon diode)
VT = Voltage equivalent of temperature in Volts

• The Voltage equivalent of temperature indicates dependence on diode current on

temperature.
• The Voltage equivalent of temperature VT for a given diode at temperature T is calculated as
VT = kT volts
Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 8.62 x 10-5 ev/ 0K
T = Temperature in 0K
• Thus at room temperature of 27 0 C i.e. T = 27+273 = 300 0K the value of VT is
VT = 8.62 x 10-5 x 300 = 0.02586 V = 26 mv
 Diode Current Equation
• The diode current equation is applicable for all the conditions
of diode. i.e. unbiased, forward biased, and reverse biased.

• For Forward Bias:

– V must be taken positive, so we get current I positive
(forward current)

• For Reverse Bias :

– V must be taken negative, so we get current I negative
(reverse current)
 Diode Current Equation
• Consider the current equation of diode as,
I = I0 (eV/VT – 1)

• For forward biased condition, the bias voltage V is considered

positive and hence exponential index has positive sign. Due to
this 1 << eV/VT , hence neglecting 1, we get the equation for a
forward current as,
I = I0 eV/VT

• This indicates that once bias voltage exceeds cut in voltage,

the forward current increases exponentially.
 Diode Current Equation
• In reverse biased condition, the bias voltage V is treated
negative and due to this exponential index has negative sign.

– So e-V/VT << 1, hence neglecting exponential term we get

α IR = I0 (-1) = - I0

• This indicates that under reverse biased condition, the current

is reverse saturation current which is negative indicating that
it flows in opposite direction
 Diode Current Equation
• Problem-1:
• A germanium diode is used in a rectifier circuit and is operating at a
temperature of 25 0C with a reverse saturation current of 1000 µA.
Calculate the value of forward current if it is forward biased by 0.22 V.
Assume the value of Ƞ=1 for Ge.

• Solution:
I0 = 1000 µA = 1000 x 10-6 A, Ƞ=1,
V = 0.22 V T = 25 0C + 273 = 298
0
C
VT = kT=8.62 x 10-5 x 298 = 0.025 V

Diode Current is given by,

I = I0 (eV/VT – 1) = 1000 x 10-6 [e0.2/1x0.025 – 1]
I = 6.6332 A
 Diode Approximations
There are three Diodes Approximations:
• Ideal Diode Approximation(1st-Approximation)
• Second approximation
• Linear piecewise Approximation ( Third Approximation)

• Ideal Diode Approximation :

– The diode is assumed to start conducting with zero resistance when the
applied voltage is just greater than zero.
• Hence the drop across the diode is also zero.
– So conducting diode can be ideally replaced by a short circuit for the
analysis of circuits involving diodes.
– When it is reverse biased it offers infinite resistance
and hence acts like a open circuit as the ideal reverse
current is zero.
– Hence Ideal diode acts as a perfect switch.
 Diode Approximations
• Second approximation:

• Practically no diode is ideal. Hence for analyzing some circuit accurate

approximation is required which is Second approximation.

– When forward voltage is more than 0.7 V, for Si diode then it conducts
and offers zero resistance. The drop across the diode is 0.7V.

– When reverse biased it offers infinite resistance.

 Diode Approximations
• Linear piecewise Approximation ( Third Approximation)

– The approximation of characteristics with the help of pieces of straight

lines is called linear piecewise approximation.

– When forward voltage is more than 0.7 V, then the diode conducts
and the voltage drop across the diode becomes 0.7 V and it offers
resistance Rf (slope of the current)
VD = 0.7 + ID Rf
 DC Equivalent Circuits of Diode
Diode Circuit Models
• In practical electronic circuits, the diode is required to be replaced by its
equivalent circuit for the analysis purpose
– Such an equivalent circuit is also called the circuit model of the diode
– Such an equivalent circuit can be obtained based on the diode
approximations
• The table below gives the various d.c. equivalent circuits of the diode

Ideal Diode Rf = 0 Ω
Rr = ∞Ω
Short in Forward bias
Open in Reverse bias
Diode with constant The forward voltage drop
forward voltage drop is constant and it behaves
as d.c. battery of voltage Vf
Complete d.c. This assumes finite forward Vf
equivalent circuit resistance when diode is
forward biased
+
Vf RF
 DC Load Line of Diode
• Consider a simple diode circuit shown in the figure below
Vf

If RL V0
Vin

• From the figure:

– The diode is forward biased.
– V0 = Output voltage across the load resistance
– If = Forward current of diode, flows through the circuit
• The graphical analysis which gives precise relationship between Vf and If
without using any diode approximation is called d.c. load line analysis of
the diode
 DC Load Line of Diode
Vf

If RL V0
Vin

• Applying kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit,

Vf = Vin - If RL
i.e. If = - Vf + Vin
RL RL -------------------------------- 1
i.e y = mx +c
 DC Load Line of Diode
• The equation-1 is straight line equation of the form y = mx +c, which gives
linear relation between Vf and If

– This equation is called equation of d.c. load line for the diode.
– The load line is always straight line.
– The slope of the line is m = -1/ RL i.e. reciprocal of the load resistance
RL .
– Hence the line is called a load line.
– But we have two unknowns Vf and If and only one equation
– The second equation is the equation of forward characteristics of the
diode which is an exponential equation.
– Solving these two equations analytically is difficult, hence graphical
analysis is used.
 DC Load Line of Diode
• For graphical analysis, the diode forward characteristics as given in the
datasheet is considered.
• On this characteristics, equation-1 is drawn
B
• Procedure for drawing d.c. load line:
– From Equation 1, obtain two points
– Point B: (0, Vin / RL )
• Vf = 0, hence If = Vin / RL
– Point A: (Vin , 0)
• If = 0, hence Vf = Vin A

• The point B gives ‘y’ intercept while point A gives ‘x’ intercept of the line.
• The line joining the points A and B is called d.c. load line of the diode.
• Draw this line on the forward characteristics of the diode
• The combined graph is shown in the figure
DC Load Line of Diode

• Q-Point:
– The point where the diode
characteristic curve and the
load line intersect is the
operating point (Q point of
the circuit;
– At these points the current
and voltage parameters of
both parts of the circuit
match.
– This is also called operating
point; quiescent point ; d.c.
biasing point of the device
 DC Load Line of Diode
• Draw the dc load line for the circuit, on the diode forward characteristics.
 Rectifiers
• The p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction.

– It conducts when forward biased

– It does not conduct when reverse biased

• Hence it can be used to convert a.c. supply to d.c. supply.

• Rectifier is a circuit that converts ac voltage of main supply into pulsating dc

voltage using one or more p-n junction diodes.

• There are 3 types of rectifiers:

– Half Wave Rectifier,

– Full Wave Rectifier and
– Bridge Rectifier.
 Half Wave Rectifier

Single Phase es EDC

A.C. Supply

B
 Half Wave Rectifier
• The input voltage to the half-
wave rectifier circuit is a
sinusoidal a.c. voltage.
• The voltage across secondary is
given by
es = Esm sin wt
• The peak value of secondary is
Single Phase decided by the transformer.
A.C. Supply • If N1 are the primary number of
B turns and N2 are the secondary
number of turns and Epm is the
primary voltage, then,
N2 / N1 = Esm / Epm
• Let Rf = forward resistance of
diode
Half Wave Rectifier-Operation
• During Positive half cycle of
input a.c. voltage:

– Terminal ‘A’ becomes positive

w.r.t. terminal ‘B’.

– The diode is forward biased

and the current flows in the
circuit in the clockwise
direction as shown in the fig.

• The same current also

flows through resistance
RL , hence denoted as IL
Half Wave Rectifier-Operation
• During Negative half cycle of input a.c.
voltage:

– Terminal ‘A’ becomes negative

w.r.t. terminal ‘B’.
– The diode is reverse biased and
hence no current flows in the circuit
as shown in the fig.

• Thus the circuit current, which is also

the load current, is in the form of half
sinusoidal pulses

• The load voltage, being the product of

load current and load resistance, will
also be in the form of half sinusoidal
pulses .
 Half Wave Rectifier-Operation
• The different waveforms are illustrated in the figure below:
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• The peak value of the load current is given by,
• Im = Esm
Rf + R L + R s

where Rs = Resistance of secondary winding of transformer

• Average or d.c. value of the load current (IDC):

• The current waveform can be described as
iL = Im sin ɯt for 0 ≤ ɯt ≤ π and iL = 0 for π ≤ ɯt ≤ 2π
Im = peak value of the load current
IDC = 1/ 2π Im sin (ɯt) d (ɯt)
• As no current flows during negative half cycle of a.c. input voltage, i.e.
between ɯ = π to ɯ = 2π , we change the limits of integration,
• IDC = 1/ 2π Im sin (ɯt) d (ɯt) = Im / 2π [- cos (ɯt)] π
0
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• IDC = -Im / 2π [cos (π) - cos (0)]
= -Im / 2π [-1 - 1]
IDC = Im / π = Average Value

• Average d.c. load voltage (EDC):

– It is the product of average d.c. load current and the total resistance R L
EDC = IDC * RL = Im / π * RL = Esm * RL
( R f + R L + Rs ) π

• The winding resistance Rs and forward diode resistance Rf are practically very
small compared to RL , hence neglecting them
EDC = Esm / π
• Note:
– When Rs and Rf are finite, calculate Im , then IDC and from that calculate
EDC as IDC * RL
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• R.M.S. Value of the load current:
• The RMS means squaring, finding mean and then taking square root of the
value. Mathematically it is obtained as:

IRMS = 1
2π (Im sin (ɯt)) 2 d (ɯt)

= Im 1 Im 2 sin 2 (ɯt) d (ɯt)

2π

1
= Im 2π 1-cos2 ɯt d (ɯt)
2
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
π
IRMS = Im 1 ɯt sin 2 ɯt
2π 2 4
0

1 π
= Im 2π 2

IRMS = Im
2
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• d.c. Power output (PDC):
PDC = EDC IDC = I 2DC RL
= (Im / π )2 RL
= ( I2m / π2 ) RL
PDC = E2sm RL
π2 [ R f + R L + R s ] 2

• The a.c. power input taken from the secondary of transformer is the
power supplied to three resistances namely load resistance RL , the diode
resistance Rf and winding resistance Rs
PAC = I 2RMS [Rf + RL + Rs]
IRMS = Im / 2
PAC = I 2m [Rf + RL + Rs]
4
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Rectifier Efficiency:
Ƞ = D.C. Output Power = PDC
A.C. Input Power PAC
= (Im / π )2 RL
I 2m [Rf + RL + Rs]
4
= (4 / π 2 ) RL
[Rf + RL + Rs]
Dividing by RL to numerator and denominator
Ƞ = 0.406
1+ R f + Rs
RL
If (Rf + Rs) << RL , the maximum theoretical efficiency of Half Wave
Rectifier is
Ƞ = 0.406 * 100 = 40.6 %
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Ripple Factor:
• The output of half wave rectifier is not pure d.c. but a pulsating d.c.
– These pulsating components are called ripples
– Ideally there should not be any ripples in the rectifier output
– Ripple factor is the measure of ripples present in the output, denoted
by ‘γ’
• It tells how smooth is the output
– Smaller the ripple factor closer is the output to a pure d.c.
– Mathematically ripple factor is defined as the ratio of R.M.S value of
the a.c. component in the output to the average or d.c. component
present in the output
– Ripple factor γ = R.M.S value of a.c. component of output
Average or d.c. component of output
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• The output current is composed of a.c. components (Iac) as well as d.c.
component (IDC)
• Hence R.M.S value of total output current I RMS = I 2ac + I 2DC
• I ac = I 2RMS - I 2DC

• Ripple factor = I ac / I DC
γ = I 2RMS - I 2DC

I DC

γ = (I RMS / I DC) 2 - 1

• Hence this is the general expression for ripple factor and can be used for
any rectifier circuit.
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• For a half wave rectifier circuit, IRMS = Im / 2 and IDC = Im / π

γ = (Im / 2 ) 2
- 1
(Im / π )

γ = (π 2 / 4) - 1

γ = 1.4674

γ = 1.21

This indicates that the ripple contents in the output are 1.21 times the d.c.
component i.e. 121.1 % of d.c. component.
The ripple factor for half wave is very high which indicates that the half wave
circuit is a poor converter of a.c. to d.c.
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Peak Inverse Voltage:

– The peak voltage across the diode in the reverse direction i.e. when the
diode is reverse biased.

– This is called PIV rating of a diode.

– In half wave rectifier, the load current is ideally zero when the diode is
reverse biased and hence the maximum value of the voltage that can
exist across the diode is nothing but ESM

PIV of diode = ESM (for half wave rectifier)

 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Voltage Regulation:

– The factor which tells us about the change in the d.c. output voltage as
load changes from no load to full load condition

• % Voltage Regulation = (Vdc) NL - (Vdc) FL x 100

(Vdc) FL

• Less the value of Voltage Regulation, better is the performance of rectifier

circuit.

• For Half wave circuit,

(Vdc) NL = (Esm) / π
(Vdc) FL = IDC RL = Esm * RL
( Rf + RL + Rs ) π
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Substituting values of (Vdc) NL and (Vdc) FL in Voltage Regulation equation
and neglecting winding resistance,

% R = Rf / RL * 100

• Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

– The T.U.F is defined as the ratio of d.c. power delivered to the load to
the a.c. power rating of the transformer.

– T.U.F = D.C. Power delivered to the load

A.C. Power rating of the transformer
 Half Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• For half wave rectifier:
PDC = I 2DC RL = (Im / π ) 2 RL

• While calculating the a.c. power rating, it is necessary to consider r.m.s.

value of a.c. voltage and current

• A.C. power rating of transformer = ERMS IRMS = (ESM / √2) * (Im / 2)

= ESM Im / 2√2

= ((Im RL ) * Im ) / 2√2

• T.U.F = I 2m RL 2√2 = 2√2 = 0.287

π2 I 2 m RL π2
 Half Wave Rectifier – Advantages and
Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– Only diode is sufficient
– Circuit is easy to design
– No centre tap on the transformer is necessary

• Disadvantages:

– The ripple factor is quite high i.e 1.21.

– The maximum theoretical rectification efficiency is found to be 40%,
which is very low.
– The T.U.F is very low showing that the transformer is not fully
utilized.
 Full Wave Rectifier
• The full wave rectifier conducts during both positive and negative half
cycle of a.c. supply.
• The full wave rectifier circuit uses two diodes to rectify both the half
cycles of a.c. input as shown in the figure.

• The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center tap
transformer.
• The a.c. voltage is applied through a suitable transformer
Full Wave Rectifier-Operation
• During positive half cycle of ac
A
input voltage:

– Terminal ‘A’ is Positive and

terminal ‘B’ is Negative due
to center tap transformer

– Diode D1 => Forward Biased

• D1 supplies the load

current, iL = id1

B – Diode D2 => Reverse Biased

• D2 will not conduct

Full Wave Rectifier-Operation
• During negative half cycle of ac
input voltage:
A

– Terminal ‘A’ is Negative and

terminal ‘B’ is Positive
– Diode D1 => Reverse Biased
• D1 will not conduct
– Diode D2 => Forward Biased
• D2 supplies the load
current, iL = id2

• The load current flows in both the

half cycles of ac voltage and in
B
the same direction through the
load resistance
– Hence we get the rectified
output across the load
 Full Wave Rectifier-Operation
• The load current is sum of individual diode currents flowing in
corresponding half cycles.
• It should be noted that the two diodes do not conduct simultaneously but
in alternate half cycles
• The individual diode currents and the load current are shown in the figure

The output
load current is
still pulsating
d.c. and not
pure d.c.
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• The peak value of the load current is given by,
• Im = Esm
Rf + RL + Rs

where Rs = Resistance of each half of secondary winding

Esm = Max. value of a.c. input voltage across each half of
secondary
• Average or d.c. value of the load current (IDC):
• The current waveform can be described as
iL = Im sin ɯt for 0 ≤ ɯt ≤ 2π and
Im = peak value of the load current
Consider one cycle of the load current iL from 0 to π . π
0
IDC = 1/ π IDC
Im sin (ɯt) d (ɯt) == -I
Imm// ππ [-[cos
cos(π) - cos (0)]
(ɯt)]
= -Im / π [-1 – 1]

IDC = 2 Im / π
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Average d.c. load voltage (EDC):
– It is the product of average d.c. load current and the total resistance RL
EDC = IDC * RL = (2Im / π) * RL = 2Esm * RL
( Rf + RL + Rs ) π

• As Rs and Rf << RL , hence neglecting them

EDC = 2Esm / π
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• R.M.S. Value of the load current:
• The circuit has two half wave rectifiers similar in operation in two half
cycles, hence integration term is splitted as:

IRMS = 2x 1 (Im sin (ɯt) 2 d (ɯt)

2π

= Im 1 sin 2 (ɯt) d (ɯt)

π

1
= Im π 1-cos2 ɯt d (ɯt)
2
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
π
IRMS = Im 1 ɯt sin 2 ɯt
π 2 4
0

1 π
= Im π 2

IRMS = Im

√2
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• d.c. Power output (PDC):
PDC = EDC IDC = I 2DC RL
= (2Im / π )2 RL
= (4 / π2 ) I2m RL
PDC = 4 E2sm RL
π2 [ R f + R L + R s ] 2

• The a.c. power input taken from the secondary of transformer is the
power supplied to three resistances namely load resistance RL , the diode
resistance Rf and winding resistance Rs
PAC = I 2RMS [Rf + RL + Rs]
IRMS = Im / √2
PAC = I 2m [Rf + RL + Rs]
2
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Rectifier Efficiency:
Ƞ = D.C. Output Power = PDC
A.C. Input Power PAC
= (4/ π 2 ) I 2 m RL
I 2m [Rf + RL + Rs]
2
= 8 RL
π2 [Rf + RL + Rs]
If (Rf + Rs) << RL ,neglecting it from denominator
Ƞ = 8 RL
π2 RL

Ƞ = 0.812 * 100 = 81.2 %

 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
The general expression for ripple factor is given by

γ = (I RMS / I DC) 2 - 1

For Full wave, IRMS = Im / √2 and IDC = 2Im / π

Im / √2 2

γ = -1
2Im / π

γ = (π 2 / 8) – 1

γ = 0.48
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Peak Inverse Voltage:

– The peak voltage across the diode in the reverse direction i.e. when the
diode is reverse biased.

– This is called PIV rating of a diode.

– The peak value of the inverse voltage to which diode gets subjected is
voltage across both the parts of the transformer secondary

PIV of diode = 2 ESM

 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Voltage Regulation:

– The factor which tells us about the change in the d.c. output voltage as
load changes from no load to full load condition

• % Voltage Regulation = (Vdc) NL - (Vdc) FL x 100

(Vdc) FL

• Less the value of Voltage Regulation, better is the performance of rectifier

circuit.

• For Half wave circuit,

(Vdc) NL = (2Esm) / π
(Vdc) FL = IDC RL = 2 Esm * RL
( Rf + RL + Rs ) π
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Substituting values of (Vdc) NL and (Vdc) FL in Voltage Regulation equation
and neglecting winding resistance,

% R = (Rf + Rs ) * 100
RL
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

– In full wave rectifier, the current in secondary flows through each half
separately in every half cycle. While in the primary of transformer,
current flows continuously
– Hence T.U.F is calculated for primary and secondary separately and
then the average T.U.F is determined

– Secondary T.U.F = D.C. Power delivered to the load

A.C. Power rating of the transformer

= I 2DC RL
ERMS IRMS

= (2Im / π ) 2 RL
(ESM / √2) * (Im / √2)
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• While calculating the a.c. power rating, it is necessary to consider r.m.s.
value of a.c. voltage and current

• A.C. power rating of transformer = ERMS IRMS = (ESM / √2) * (Im / √2)
= ESM Im / 2
Neglecting Rf , ESM = Im RL
= ((Im RL ) * Im ) / 2

• Secondary T.U.F = 4 x I 2m RL = 8 = 0.812

π2 I 2 m RL π2
2
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• The primary of the transformer is feeding two half-wave rectifiers
separately.
• These two half wave rectifiers work independently of each other but feed
a common load
• The T.U.F. for half wave rectifier circuit is 0.287. Hence
• T.U.F. for primary winding = 2 x T.U.F. of half wave circuit
= 2 x 0.287
= 0.574
• The average T.U.F. for full wave circuit will be
• Average T.U.F. = T.U.F. of primary + T.U.F. of secondary
2
= 0.574 + 0.812
2
Average T.U.F. = 0.693
for full wave rectifier circuit
 Full Wave Rectifier - Expressions
• Advantages:
– Compared to half wave rectifier circuit, the full wave rectifier circuit
has
• The d.c. load voltage and current are more than half wave.
• T.U.F is better than that of half wave rectifier circuit.
• Efficiency is higher.
• Large d.c. power output.
• Ripple factor is less.

• Disadvantages:

– The PIV rating of diode is higher.

• Higher PIV diodes are large in size and costlier.
– Cost of center tap transformer is higher.
 Bridge Rectifier
• The bridge rectifier, shown is in figure below:
– Uses one single winding as the secondary and four diodes - two are
conducting at any one time.
– Parallel-side diodes conduct at the same time.
– When the polarity changes, other two diodes conduct.
– The output waveform is the same as the full-wave rectifier.

D1
D4

D2 D3
Bridge Rectifier-Operation
• During positive half of a.c input
voltage:

– Point ‘A’ becomes positive

w.r.t. point ‘B’, Hence

• Diodes ‘D1’ and ‘D2’ will

be forward biased.
• Diodes ‘D3’ and ‘D4’ will
be reverse biased.

• The diodes D1 and D2

conduct in series with the
load and the current
flows as shown in the
figure.
 Bridge Rectifier-Operation
• During negative half of a.c input
voltage:
– Point ‘A’ becomes negative
w.r.t. point ‘B’, Hence

• Diodes ‘D3’ and ‘D4’ will

be forward biased.
• Diodes ‘D1’ and ‘D2’ will
be reverse biased.
• The diodes D3 and D4
conduct in series with the
load and the current
flows as shown in the
figure.

It can be seen that in both positive and negative half cycle of a.c, the load current
is flowing in the same direction, thus giving a full wave rectified output.
 Bridge Rectifier-Expressions
• The expressions for the bridge wave rectifier is same as that of full wave rectifier.
• The expression for Im will change slightly,
– In each half cycle, two diodes conduct simultaneously, hence
Im = Esm
2Rf + RL + Rs

• The PIV rating of diodes is Esm

EDC = IDC * RL = 2Esm / π

PDC = EDC IDC = I 2DC RL = (4 / π2 ) I2m RL

PAC = I 2RMS [2Rf + RL + Rs] = I 2m [2Rf + RL + Rs]

2
Ƞ = 8 RL
π2 [2Rf + RL + Rs]

γ = 0.48 T.U.F = 0.812

 Bridge Rectifier-Expressions
• Advantages:

– Uses a simpler transformer. It does not need center tap transformer

(no centre-tap and no extra winding).

– PIV rating of diodes in bridge rectifier is Esm . Hence the diodes for use
in Bridge rectifier are smaller and cheaper.

• Disadvantages:

– It requires four diodes, two of which conduct in alternate half cycles.

• This creates a total voltage drop of 1.4V (if Si diodes are used). A
two diode voltage drop of 1.4V becomes significant, if low dc
voltage is required.
Comparison with Two Diode Rectifier
Full-wave Rectifier using Two Diodes Full-wave Rectifier using Four Diodes

It uses centre tapped transformer It does not use centre tapped transformer

Only one diode conducts in each cycle of Two diodes conducts in each cycle of
input input

The output voltage is more The output voltage is less

T.U.F is less (0.693) T.U.F is more (0.812)

P.I.V rating of the diode is 2Esm P.I.V rating of the diode is Esm
 Filter Circuits
• It is seen that the output of a rectifier circuit is not pure d.c.
– It contains fluctuations (ripple), which is undesired
• To minimize the ripple content in the output, filter circuits are used.
– These filter circuits are connected between the rectifier and load, as
shown in the figure
• The components used in the filter circuits are
– Inductance
– Capacitance

A filter circuit is an electronic

circuit composed of capacitor,
inductor or combination of both
connected between rectifier and
load so as to convert pulsating
d.c. to pure d.c.
 C Filter with Half Wave Rectifier
• The figure shows a half wave rectifier with a capacitor input filter.
• In order to minimize the ripple in the output, the capacitor C used in the
filter circuit is quite large (tens of microfarads).
C Filter with Half Wave Rectifier
• During positive quarter cycle of
input signal es
– The diode ‘D’ is forward
biased, hence capacitor ‘C’ is
charged to peak value of
input i.e. Esm
– This initial charging happens
only once, immediately when
the power is turned on.
• In the second half quarter cycle,
When the input starts decreasing
below its peak value, the
capacitor remains charged at Esm
and the diode gets reverse
biased.
• This is because the capacitor
voltage which is cathode voltage
of diode ‘D’ becomes more
positive than anode.
C Filter with Half Wave Rectifier
• During entire negative cycle and
some part of the next positive
half cycle
A C – Capacitor discharges through
RL
– The discharging of capacitor is
B decided by RLC constant
which is very large and hence
capacitor discharges very
little from Esm
• The capacitor starts charging at
point ‘B’ where es exceeds the
capacitor voltage which is slightly
less than Esm . So from ‘B’
onwards the capacitor starts
charging again and gets charged
to Esm
C Filter with Half Wave Rectifier
• The discharging path of the
capacitor is from ‘A’ to ‘B’
• The capacitor voltage is same as
A C the output voltage as it is in
parallel with RL
• From point ‘A’ to ‘B’, the diode
B remains non-conducting and
conducts only for the period from
‘B’ to ‘C’.
• When the diode is non
conducting, the capacitor
supplies the load current.
• As the time required by the
capacitor to charge is very small
while its discharging time
constant is very large, the ripple
in the output gets reduced
considerably
 Full Wave Rectifier with C Input Filter
• The figure shows a full wave rectifier with a capacitor input filter.
Full Wave Rectifier with C Input Filter
• During first positive quarter cycle
of input signal es (0 to π/2)
– The diode ‘D’ is forward
A C biased, hence capacitor ‘C’ is
charged to peak value of
B D
input i.e. Esm
• During second positive quarter
cycle of input signal es (π/2 to π)
– Due to capacitor is charged to
Esm , the diode ‘D1’ becomes
reverse biased and stops
conducting.
– The capacitor starts
discharging through RL ,
hence capacitor ‘C’ supplies
the load current.
– It discharges till point ‘B’
Full Wave Rectifier with C Input Filter
• At point ‘B’ , the input voltage
exceeds capacitor voltage making
‘D2’ forward biased.
A C • This charges capacitor back to Esm
at point ‘C’
B D • The time required by capacitor
‘C’ to charge to Esm is quite small
and only for this period, diode
‘D2’ is conducting.
• Again at point ‘C’, diode ‘D2’
stops conducting and capacitor
supplies load and starts
discharging upto point ‘D’
• At this point , the diode ‘D1’
conducts to charge capacitor back
to Esm
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Capacitor Filter

• Advantages:
– Less number of components
– Low ripple factor, hence low ripple voltage
– Suitable for high voltage at small load currents.

• Disadvantages:
– Ripple factor depends on load resistance
– Not suitable for variable loads as ripple content increases as RL
decreases
– Regulation is poor
 Regulated Power Supply
• The figure below shows the block diagram of a typical d.c. regulated
power supply
Regulated Power Supply
• The a.c. voltage is connected to
the primary of the transformer.
• The transformer depending on
the turns ratio steps down the
a.c. voltage to the level required
for the desired d.c. output
• The rectifier converts this a.c.
voltage into a pulsating d.c.
voltage
• The filter circuit reduces the
ripple content in the pulsating
d.c. and tries to make it
smoother.
• The regulator circuit makes the
d.c. voltage smooth, almost ripple
free and keeps the d.c. output
voltage constant.
• The output of a regulator is called
d.c. supply, to which the load can
be connected.
 Zener Diode as a Shunt Regulator
• The figure shows the arrangement of zener diode in a regulator circuit.

• The zener diode has a characteristics that as long as the current through it
is between IZmin and IZmax , the voltage across it is constant i.e. equal to
zener voltage VZ as shown in the figure.
• As the zener diode is connected in shunt with the load resistance, the
output voltage is equal to zener voltage.
Zener Diode as a Shunt Regulator
• From the figure,

Iin = Vin - Vz
R
Iin = IZ + IL
Zener Diode as a Shunt Regulator
• The figure shows a zener
Iin regulator under varying input
voltage condition.
• From the figure:
Vo = Vz => Constant
IL = V o = VZ = Constant
RL RL
Iin = IZ + IL

• Now if Vin increases, then the

total current ‘Iin ‘ increases.
• But IL is constant as Vz is constant
• Hence the current Iz increases to
keep IL constant
Zener Diode as a Shunt Regulator
• As long as IZ is between IZmin and
Iin
Izmax , the VZ i.e. output voltage Vo
is constant.

• Thus the changes in the input

voltage get compensated and
output is maintained constant.

• Similarly if Vin decreases, then

current Iin decreases. But to keep
IL constant, IZ decreases, as long
as IZ is between IZmin and Izmax , the
output voltage remains constant
 Zener Diode as a Shunt Regulator
• The figure shows a zener regulator under varying load condition.
As Vin is constant and Vo = VZ is
constant, then for constant ‘R’ the
current ‘I’ is constant

Iin = Vin - Vz = Constant = IZ + IL

R

Now if RL decreases, so IL increases

to keep ‘Iin’ constant, IZ decreases.
But as long as it is between IZmin
and Izmax , the output voltage
remains constant

Similarly if RL increases , so IL
decreases to keep ‘Iin’ constant, IZ
increases.
But as long as it is between IZmin
and Izmax , the output voltage
Thus irrespective of changes in the line voltage or changesremains
in the load,
constant
the output voltage remains constant
 Design of Zener Regulator
• Design of zener regulator with varying load as well as varying input
conditions
• Let Vinmin = Minimum value of input voltage
Vinmax = Maximum value of input voltage
ILmin = Minimum value of load current
ILmAx = Maximum value of load current
IZmin = Minimum value of zener current
IZmax = Maximum value of zener current
V0 = VZ = output voltage
The limiting values series resistance ‘R’ for a given zener can be obtained as
Rmax = Vinmin - VZ = Vinmin - V0 1
ILmAx + IZmin ILmAx + IZmin

Rmin = Vinmax - VZ = Vinmax - V0 2

ILmin + IZmax ILmin + IZmax

 Design of Zener Regulator
• For any value of ‘R’ between Rmax and Rmin , the circuit works successfully
as a regulator.

• To satisfy equations (1) and (2), proper zener diode having IZmin and Izmax
values, which can satisfy the required varying load conditions must be
used in the circuit.

• If Izmax is not given, but the power rating of zener diode is given then the
maximum zener current can be obtained as,

Izmax = PD / VZ = PZ / VZ
HMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM!!!!!!!!
SYLLABUS COMPLETED
FEELING BLESSED
THANK YOU ALL FOR YOUR GREAT
PATIANCE TOWARDS ME…