C.

1 Simple 09/12/2024

harmonic
motion
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Describing Oscillations
Properties of Oscillations
• An oscillation is defined as follows:
The repetitive variation with time t of the
displacement x of an object about the equilibrium
position (x = 0)
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Describing Oscillations
• A particle undergoing an oscillation can be described
using the following properties:
• Equilibrium position (x = 0)
• The position when there is no resultant force acting
on an object
• Displacement (x)
• The horizontal or vertical distance of a point on
the wave from its equilibrium position
• It is a vector quantity
• It can be positive or negative depending on which
side of the oscillation it is
• It is measured in meter (m)
• Period (T)
• The time interval for one complete oscillation
measured in seconds (s)If the oscillations have a
constant period, they are said to be isochronous
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Describing Oscillations
• Amplitude (x)
• The maximum value of the displacement on
either side of the equilibrium position.
• Amplitude is measured in meter (m)
• Frequency (f)
• The number of oscillations per second and it is
measured in hertz (Hz)
• Hz has the SI units per second (s-1) because f=1/T
• Angular frequency (ω)
• The rate of change of angular displacement with
respect to time.
• It is measured in radians per second (rad s-1)
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Calculating Period of an Oscillation
• Angular frequency (ω) can be calculated using:

= = 2πf

• Where:
• ⍵ - angular frequency (rad s-1)
• 2π - circumference of a circle
• T – time period (s)
• f - frequency of oscillation (Hz)
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Calculating Period of an Oscillation
• The angular displacement of objects in oscillation
can be determined by matching the displacement to
an object in circular motion:
• After moving from one amplitude position x=−A to
the equilibrium position x=0 the mass on the spring
has moved an angular displacement of ¼ of a circle
= ¼ ×2π = radians
• Continuing the oscillation from the equilibrium
position to the other amplitude position the
angular displacement is also radians
• Continuing the oscillation back to the starting
point means the mass travels a further angular
displacement of + =π radians
• Hence, the total angular displacement in one
oscillation is π+π=2π radians
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Calculating Period of an Oscillation
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Calculating Period of an Oscillation
Practice problem:

A cuckoo in a cuckoo clock emerges from a fully

compressed position to a fully extended position in 1.5
seconds.

Calculate the angular frequency of the cuckoo as it

emerges from the clock.
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Calculating Period of an Oscillation
Solution:
The cuckoo goes from being fully compressed to fully
extended which means that it travels for an angular
displacement of half a circle and not a full circle
So, the angular displacement will be π.

= = = 2.1 rad s-1

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Conditions for Simple Harmonic Motion
• Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a specific type of
oscillation where:
• There is repetitive movement back and forth
through an equilibrium, or central position, so the
maximum horizontal or vertical displacement
on one side of this position is equal to the maximum
horizontal or vertical displacement on the other
• The time interval of each complete vibration is the
same (periodic)
• The force responsible for the motion (restoring
force) is always directed horizontally or
vertically towards the equilibrium position and is
directly proportional to the distance from it
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Conditions for Simple Harmonic Motion
• Examples of SHM:
• The pendulum of a clock
• A child on a swing
• A mass on a spring
• Guitar strings vibrating
• A ruler vibrating off the end of a table
• The electrons in alternating current
• The movement of a swing bridge when someone
crosses
• A marble dropped into a bowl
• An oscillation is defined to be SHM when:
• The acceleration is proportional to the
horizontal or vertical displacement
• The acceleration is in the opposite direction to
the displacement (directed towards the
equilibrium position)
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Simple Harmonic Motion
Force, acceleration and displacement of a simple
pendulum in SHM
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Simple Harmonic Motion
Force, acceleration and displacement of a mass-
spring systemin SHM
 The Defining Equation of Simple Harmonic
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Motion
• The acceleration of an object oscillating in simple
harmonic motion is given by the equation:
a = −⍵2x
• Where:
• a = acceleration (ms-2)
• ⍵ = angular frequency (rads-1)
• x = displacement (m)

• The equation demonstrates:

• Acceleration reaches its maximum value when the
displacement is at a maximum, i.e. x = x at its
amplitude
• The minus sign shows that when the object is
displaced to the right, the direction of the
acceleration is to the left and vice versa (a and x
 The Defining Equation of Simple Harmonic
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Motion
• Consider the oscillation of a simple pendulum:
• The bob accelerates as it moves towards the
midpoint
• Velocity is at a maximum when it passes through
the equilibrium position
• The pendulum slows down as it continues towards
the other extreme of oscillation
• v = 0 at x as it changes direction
• The pendulum then reverses and starts to
accelerate again towards the midpoint
 The Defining Equation of Simple Harmonic
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Motion
• Graphical Representation of SHM
• The displacement, velocity and acceleration of an
object in simple harmonic motion can be represented
by graphs against time
• All undamped SHM graphs are represented by periodic
functions
• This means they can all be described by sine and
cosine curves
• You need to know what each graph looks like and how it
relates to the other graphs
• Remember that:
• Velocity is the rate of change of displacement

• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity

 The Defining Equation of Simple Harmonic
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Motion
• Graphs that Start at the Equilibrium Position
• When oscillations start from the equilibrium position,
then:
• The displacement-time graph is a sine curve
 The Defining Equation of Simple Harmonic
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Motion
• Graphs that Start at the Equilibrium Position
• When oscillations start from the equilibrium position,
then:
• The velocity-time graph is the gradient of the
displacement-time graph, so a cosine graph and
90º out of phase with the displacement-time graph
 The Defining Equation of Simple Harmonic
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Motion
• Graphs that Start at the Equilibrium Position
• When oscillations start from the equilibrium position,
then:
• The acceleration-time graph is the gradient of
the velocity-time graph, so a negative sine
graph and 90º out of phase with the velocity-time
graph
 The Defining Equation of Simple Harmonic
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Motion
• Graphs that Start at the Amplitude Position
• When oscillations start from the equilibrium position,
then:
• The displacement-time graph is a cosine curve
 The Defining Equation of Simple Harmonic
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Motion
• Graphs that Start at the Equilibrium Position
• When oscillations start from the equilibrium position,
then:
• The velocity-time graph is the gradient of the
displacement-time graph, so a negative sine
graph and 90º out of phase with the displacement-
time graph
 The Defining Equation of Simple Harmonic
09/12/2024

Motion
• Graphs that Start at the Equilibrium Position
• When oscillations start from the equilibrium position,
then:
• The acceleration-time graph is the gradient of
the velocity-time graph, so a negative cosine
graph and 90º out of phase with the velocity-time
graph
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Time Period of a Simple Pendulum
• A simple pendulum consists of a string and a bob at
the end
• The bob is a weight, generally spherical and
considered a point mass
• The bob moves from side to side
• The string is light and inextensible remaining in
tension throughout the oscillations
• The string is attached to a fixed point above the
equilibrium position
• The time period of a simple pendulum for small angles
of oscillation is given by:

Where:
T = time period (s)
L = length of string (m)
g = gravitational field strength (Nkg-1)
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Time Period of a Simple Pendulum
• The time period of a pendulum does depend on the
gravitational field strength, meaning its period
would be different on the Earth and the Moon

Small Angle Approximation:

• This formula for time period is limited to small angles
(θ < 10°) and therefore small amplitudes of
oscillation from the equilibrium point
• The restoring force of the pendulum is the weight
component acting along the arc of the circle towards
the equilibrium position
• It is resolved to act at an angle θ to the horizontal x
• When considering SHM because of small angle
approximation it is assumed the restoring force acts
along the horizontal
• So sin θ ≅ θ
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Time Period of a Simple Pendulum
Practice problem:

A swinging pendulum with a length of 80.0 cm has a

maximum angle of displacement of 8°.

Determine the angular frequency of the oscillation.

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Time Period of a Simple Pendulum
Solution:
Length of the pendulum, L = 80 cm = 0.8 m
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 ms-2

= 3.50 rad s-1

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Time Period of a Mass-Spring System
• A mass-spring system consists of a mass attached to
the end of a spring
• The equation for the restoring force (the force
responsible for the SHM) is F = - kx
• This is the same as the equation for Hooke's Law
• The time period of a mass-spring system is given by:

• Where:
• T = time period (s)
• m = mass on the end of the spring (kg)
• k = spring constant (Nm-1)
• The equation shows that the time period and frequency,
of a mass-spring system, does not depend on the force
of gravity.
 Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic
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Motion
• Simple harmonic motion also involves an interplay
between different types of energy: potential and
kinetic
• The swinging of a pendulum is an interplay
between gravitational potential energy and
kinetic energy
• The horizontal oscillation of a mass on a spring is
an interplay between elastic potential energy and
kinetic energy
 Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic
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Motion
Energy of a Horizontal Mass-Spring System
The system has the maximum amount of elastic
potential energy when held so the spring is stretched
beyond its equilibrium position

When the mass is released, it moves back towards the

equilibrium position, accelerating as it goes so the
kinetic energy increases

Once past the equilibrium position, the kinetic energy

decreases and elastic potential energy increases
 Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic
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Motion
Energy of a Simple-Pendulum
• At the amplitude at the top of the swing, the
pendulum has a maximum amount of gravitational
potential energy
• When the pendulum is released, it moves back
towards the equilibrium position, accelerating as it
goes so the kinetic energy increases
• As the height of the pendulum decreases, the
gravitational potential energy also decreases
• Once the mass has passed the equilibrium position,
kinetic energy decreases and gravitational
potential energy increases
 Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic
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Motion
Energy of a Simple-Pendulum
 Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic
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Motion
Total Energy of an SHM System
• The total energy in the system remains constant, but
the amount of energy in one form goes up while the
amount in the other form goes down
• This constant total energy shows how energy in a
closed system is never created or destroyed; it is
transferred from one store to another (law of
conservation of energy)
The total energy of a simple harmonic system
always remains constant and is equal to the
sum of the kinetic
and potential energy
• The total energy is calculated using the equation:
ET = E P+ E K
• Where:
• ET - total energy in joules (J)
E - potential energy in joules (J)
 Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic
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Motion
Total Energy of an SHM System
Remember the equations for potential and kinetic
energy:

Gravitational potential energy:

Elastic potential energy,

Kinetic energy,
 Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic
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Motion
Energy-Displacement Graph
• Displacement is a
vector, so, the
graph has both
positive and
negative x values
• The potential
energy is always
maximum at the
amplitude positions
x = xo, and 0 at the
equilibrium position
• The kinetic energy is 0 at the amplitude positions x =
x=0
xo and maximum at the equilibrium position x =0
• The total energy is represented by a horizontal
straight line above the curves
 Energy Changes in Simple Harmonic
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Motion
Energy-Time Graph for a Simple Pendulum
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Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion (AHL)
Summary of SHM Equations
• For a body that begins oscillating from its equilibrium
position (i.e. x=0 when t=0), its displacement, velocity
and acceleration can be described by the equations:
x = x0 sin ωt
v = ωx0 cos ωt
a = − ω2x0 sin ωt
Where:
• x - displacement of the oscillator (m)
• x0 - maximum displacement, or amplitude (m)
• v - velocity of the oscillator (ms-1)
• a - acceleration of the oscillator (ms-2)
• ω - angular frequency (rads-1)
• t - time (s)
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Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion (AHL)
Summary of SHM Equations
• For a body that begins oscillating from its amplitude
position (i.e. x = x0 when t = 0), its displacement,
velocity and acceleration can be described by the
equations:
x = x0 cos ωt
v = − ωx0 sin ωt
a = − ω2x0 cos ωt
Where:
• x - displacement of the oscillator (m)
• x0 - maximum displacement, or amplitude (m)
• v - velocity of the oscillator (ms-1)
• a - acceleration of the oscillator (ms-2)
• -1
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Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion (AHL)
Summary of SHM Equations
• The variation of an oscillator's velocity with its
displacement x is defined by:

• This equation shows that the larger the amplitude x0

of an oscillation, the greater the distance it must
travel in a given time period
• Hence, the faster it travels, the closer it is to the
equilibrium position
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Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion (AHL)
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Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion (AHL)
The Origin of the Displacement Equations
• The SHM displacement equation for an object
oscillating from its equilibrium position(x = 0 at t =
0) is:

x = xo sin (⍵t + Φ)

• Where:
• Φ = phase difference (radians) = 0

• Because:
• The graph of x = sin (t)starts from amplitude xo = 0
when the pendulum is in the equilibrium position at t
=0
• The displacement is at its maximum when sin(⍵t)
equals 1 or −1, when x = xo
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Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion (AHL)
The Origin of the Displacement Equations
• The SHM displacement equation for an object
oscillating from its amplitude position(x = xo at t = 0)
is:

x = xo cos (⍵t + Φ)

• The displacement will be at its maximum when cos(⍵t)

equals 1 or −1, when x = xo
• This is because the cosine graph starts at a maximum,
whereas the sine graph starts at 0
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Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion (AHL)
The Origin of the Velocity Equations in
Trigonometric Form
The trigonometric equation for the velocity of an object
starting from its equilibrium position(x = 0 at t= 0) is:

v = ⍵xo cos (⍵t + Φ)

• Where:
• Φ = phase difference (radians) = 0

• This comes from the fact that velocity is the rate of

change of displacement
• The trigonometric equation for the velocity of an
object starting from its amplitude position (x = xo at
t= 0) is:
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Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion (AHL)
The Origin of the Displacement-Velocity Relation
• The velocity of an object in simple harmonic motion
varies as it oscillates back and forth and is given by the
equation:

• The value can be negative or positive

• This comes from the fact that acceleration is the rate
of change of velocity
• This equation shows that when an oscillator has a
greater amplitude xo, it has to travel a greater distance
in the same time and hence has greater speed v
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Calculating Energy Changes in SHM (AHL)
Equations for Energy in SHM
• Potential energy:

• Total energy:

• The kinetic energy-displacement relation for SHM is:

• Where:
• m = mass (kg)
• ω = angular frequency (rads-1)
• x = amplitude (m)
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Calculating Energy Changes in SHM (AHL)
Practice problem:

A ball of mass 23 g is held between two fixed points A and

B by two stretched helical springs, as shown in the
diagram below.

The ball oscillates with simple harmonic motion along line

AB. The oscillations are of frequency 4.8 Hz and amplitude
1.5 cm.

Calculate the total energy of the oscillations.

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Calculating Energy Changes in SHM (AHL)
Solution:

m = 23 g = 23 × 10–3kg
x0 = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
f = 4.8 Hz

ET = ½mω2xo2

ET = ½m(2πf)2xo2

ET = ½(23 × 10–3) (4π2)(4.8)2(0.015)2

ET = 2.354 × 10–3
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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Phase Angles
• Two points on a sine wave, or on different waves, are in
phase when they are at the same point in their wave
cycle
• The angle between their wave cycles is known as the
phase angle
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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Phase Angles
• If an oscillation does not start from the equilibrium
position, then it will be out of phase by an angle of ϕ
• This would be compared to an oscillation which does
start from the equilibrium position
• The phase angle ϕ of an oscillation (in SHM) is defined
as:

The difference in angular displacement

compared to an oscillator which has a
displacement of zero initially (i.e. x = 0 when t
= 0)
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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Phase Angles
• The phase angle can vary anywhere from 0 to 2π
radians, i.e. one complete cycle
• With the inclusion of the phase angle ϕ, the
displacement, velocity and acceleration SHM equations
become:

x = xo sin (⍵t + Φ)
v = ⍵xo cos (⍵t + Φ)
a = -⍵2xo sin (⍵t + Φ)
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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Phase Angles
• If two bodies in simple harmonic motion oscillate with
the same frequency and amplitude, but are out of
phase by π/2, then:
• The displacement of the oscillator starting from the
equilibrium position is represented by the equation

x = x0 sin ωt

• The displacement of the oscillator which leads by π/2

is represented by the equation

x = x0 sin (ωt – π/2)

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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Phase Angles

• Two oscillators which are out of phase by ϕ = π/2

• The blue-dotted wave represents an oscillator starting
from the equilibrium position
• The red wave represents an oscillator leading by π/2
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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Phase Angles
• When a sine wave leads by a phase angle of π/2, this is
equivalent to the cosine of the wave

x = x0 sin (ωt − π/2) = x0 cos ωt

• Alternatively, a sine wave can be described as a cosine

wave that lags by π/2

x = x0 cos (ωt + π/2) = x0 sin ωt

• Notice:
• For a wave that lags the phase difference is +π/2
• For a wave that leads the phase difference is −π/2
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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
How are sine and cosine functions related?
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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Practice problem
A mass attached to a spring is released from a vertical
height of hmax at time t=0.
The mass oscillates with a simple harmonic motion of
period T.
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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Practice problem

The graph shows the variation of h with t.

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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Practice problem
1. State the equation of motion for this oscillation.
2. A second mass-spring system is set up and made to
oscillate with the same frequency but with a phase
angle of ϕ=−π/4. On the graph, sketch the variation of
h with t for the second mass-spring system.
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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Solution
1.
• The displacement-time equation for an oscillator
released from a maximum displacement has the form
x = x0 cos ωt
or
x = x0 sin (ωt − π/2)
As the graph is leading a normal sine graph by π/2
• Where x = h and x0 = hmax
• Angular frequency ω is equal to ω = 2π/T
• Therefore, the equation of motion for this oscillation is:

h = hmax cos [(2π/T)t]

or
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Phase Angles in SHM (AHL)
Solution
2.
One complete oscillation is equivalent to 2π rad

A phase angle of ϕ = −π/4 corresponds to a shift to the

right (positive direction)