COMPUTER NETWORK

PREPARED
BY
MR NILACHAKRA DASH
 Computer Network Types

• A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that

enables the computer to communicate with another computer and
share their resources, data, and applications.
• A computer network can be categorized by their size.
• A computer network is mainly of four types:

 LAN(Local Area Network)

 PAN(Personal Area Network)
 MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN(Wide Area Network)
 CAN(Campus Area Network)
 LAN(Local Area Network)
• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each
other in a small area such as building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers
through a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial
cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as
hubs, network adapters, and ethernet(803.11) cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.
 PAN(Personal Area Network)

• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an

individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer
devices of personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring
the idea of the Personal Area Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the
personal area network are the laptop, mobile phones, media
player and play stations.
 Types Of Personal Area Network:
• There are two types of Personal Area Network:
1. Wired Personal Area Network
2. Wireless Personal Area Network
• Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal
Area Network is developed by simply using wireless
technologies such as WiFi (wire less fiedielity),
Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
• Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area
Network is created by using the USB.
 Examples Of Personal Area
Network:

• Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves

with a person. For example, a mobile network moves with a
person. Suppose a person establishes a network connection and
then creates a connection with another device to share the
information.
• Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the
home, so it is also known as a home network. A home network is
designed to integrate the devices such as printers, computer,
television but they are not connected to the internet.
• Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to
the internet and to a corporate network using a VPN
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
 Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

• MAN is used in communication between the

banks in a city.
• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the
military.
 WAN(Wide Area Network)

• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a

large geographical area such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the
LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location,
but it spans over a large geographical area through a
telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of
Business, government, and education.
 Examples Of Wide Area
Network:

• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used

across a region or country.
• Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide
the internet services to the customers in hundreds
of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
• Private network: A bank provides a private
network that connects the 44 offices. This network
is made by using the telephone leased line
provided by the telecom company.
 Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

• Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical

area. Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can
connect with them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line
through which we can connect with another branch.
• Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore,
we do not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore,
the programmers get the updated files within seconds.
• Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast.
The web application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to
communicate with friends.
• Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the
software and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
• Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
• High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this
gives the high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer
rate which in turn increases the productivity of our company.
 Disadvantages of Wide Area
Network:

• The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

• Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as
compared to LAN and MAN network as all the technologies are
combined together that creates the security problem.
• Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on
the internet which can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so
the firewall needs to be used. Some people can inject the virus
in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
• High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high
as it involves the purchasing of routers, switches.
• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the
problem is difficult.
 Internetwork

• An internetwork is defined as two or more computer

network LANs or WAN or computer network
segments are connected using devices, and they are
configured by a local addressing scheme. This process
is known as internetworking.
• An interconnection between public, private,
commercial, industrial, or government computer
networks can also be defined as internetworking.
• An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
• The reference model used for internetworking
is Open System Interconnection(OSI).
 Types Of Internetwork
• :
• 1.
Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet
protocol such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is
used for information sharing. The access to the extranet is restricted to only
those users who have login credentials. An extranet is the lowest level of
internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer
networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one
connection to the external network.
• 2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol
such as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet
belongs to an organization which is only accessible by the organization's
employee or members. The main aim of the intranet is to share the
information and resources among the organization employees. An intranet
provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.
 Intranet advantages:

• Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An

employee of the organization can communicate with another
employee through email, chat.
• Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it
is time-saving.
• Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage
of the intranet. The information is distributed among the employees
of the organization and can only be accessed by the authorized user.
• Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer
can be connected to another device with different architecture.
• Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the
browser and distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This
leads to a reduction in the cost.
 BENEFITS OF N/W H/W
• Network hardware plays a key role as industries
grow as it supports scalability.
• It integrates any number of components depending
on the enterprise’s needs.
• Network hardware helps establish an effective
mode of communication, thereby improving the
business standards.
• It also promotes multiprocessing and enables
sharing of resources, information, and software
with ease.
 NETWORK HARD WARE
Network hardware is defined as a set of
physical or network devices that are essential
for interaction and communication between
hardware units operational on a computer
network.
These are dedicated hardware components
that connect to each other and enable a
network to function effectively and
efficiently.
 Modems:
• Modems: A modem enables a computer to
connect to the internet via a telephone line.
The modem at one end converts the
computer’s digital signals into analog signals
and sends them through a telephone line. At
the other end, it converts the analog signals to
digital signals that are understandable for
another computer.
 Routers:
• Routers: A router connects two or more networks. One
common use of the router is to connect a home or office
network (LAN) to the internet (WAN).
• It generally has a plugged-in internet cable along with cables
that connect computers on the LAN. Alternatively, a LAN
connection can also be wireless (Wi-Fi-enabled), making the
network device wireless. These are also referred to as wireless
access points (WAPs).
 HUBS
• Hubs: A hub broadcasts data to all devices on
a network. As a result, it consumes a lot of
bandwidth as many computers might not
need to receive the broadcasted data. The hub
could be useful in linking a few gaming
consoles in a local multiplayer game via a
wired or wireless LAN.
 Bridges
• Bridges: A bridge connects two separate LAN
networks. It scans for the receiving device
before sending a message. This implies that it
avoids unnecessary data transfers if the
receiving device is not there. Moreover, it also
checks to see whether the receiving device
has already received the message. These
practices improve the overall performance of
the network.
 Switches:

• Switches: A switch is more powerful than a

hub or a bridge but performs a similar role. It
stores the MAC addresses of network devices
and transfers data packets only to those
devices that have requested Thus, when the
demand is high, a switch becomes more
efficient as it reduces the amount of latency.
 Network interface cards:
• Network interface cards: A network interface
card (NIC) is a hardware unit installed on a
computer, which allows it to connect to a
network. It is typically in the form of a circuit
board or chip. In most modern machines, NICs
are built into the motherboards, while in some
computers, an extra expansion card in the
form of a small circuit board is added
externally.
 Network cables
• Network cables: Cables connect different
devices on a network. Today, most networks
have cables over a wireless connection as they
are more secure, i.e., less prone to attacks,
and at the same time carry larger volumes of
data per second.
 Firewall
• Firewall: A firewall is a hardware or software
device between a computer and the rest of
the network open to attackers or hackers.
Thus, a LAN can be protected from hackers by
placing a firewall between the LAN and the
internet connection. A firewall allows
authorized connections and data-like emails or
web pages to pass through but blocks
unauthorized connections made to a
computer or LANS.
 Importance of Network Hardware in Modern Networking

• Facilitating Communication and Connectivity:Network hardware is fundamental in

establishing and maintaining the communication pathways between different
devices and networks. By managing data traffic efficiently, these devices ensure
better connectivity, something that is crucial for both personal and business
communications.
• Network Performance and Efficiency:The right combination of network hardware
can significantly enhance the performance of a network. Devices such as switches
and routers are designed to manage data flow intelligently, thereby reducing
latency, and increasing the speed of data transmission. This results in a more
efficient and reliable network, capable of handling large volumes of data, such as
networking hardware for data centers.
• Scalability and Flexibility:Network hardware offers scalability, allowing networks
to expand and adapt to increasing demands. As an organization grows, network
hardware can be upgraded or added to accommodate new users and devices
without compromising performance.
• Secur:ityNetwork hardware also plays a critical role in network security. Firewalls,
which are often integrated into routers, monitor incoming and outgoing network
traffic and protect against unauthorized access and cyber threats. This
safeguarding of data integrity and privacy is essential in today's digital world.
• components of computer network architecture:
• Hardware
• Hardware refers to network devices that form the core of any network.
These include user devices (laptops, PDAs, mobile phones), routers,
servers, and gateways. The basic objective of any network architecture is
to establish an efficient mechanism to transfer data from
• one hardware device to another.
• 2. Transmission media
• Transmission media encompasses all physical connections between
network (hardware) devices. The properties of different transmission
media determine the speed of data transfer from one endpoint to
another. These can be wired and wireless. Wired media include physical
wires or cables used for connections within a network, such as coaxial or
fiber optics. On the other hand, wireless media operates on properties of
microwave or radio signals, such as Wi-Fi or cellular.
• 3. Protocols
• Protocols refer to the rules that govern data movement between
network devices. Various machines on a network communicate with
each other using this common protocol language. Without these
protocols in place, it would be difficult for your iPhone to access a web
page that is essentially stored on a Linux server.
• The nature of data decides the type of network protocol it needs to
adopt. For example, transmission control protocol/internet protocol
(TCP/IP) is used to connect to the internet, while file transfer protocol
(FTP) is used for sending and receiving files to and from a server.
Similarly, Ethernet protocol is used for connecting one computing
device to another.
• 4. Topology
• Network topology defines how the network is wired together and
highlights the network’s structure. This is important because variables
such as distance between communicating devices can impact its data
transfer speed, thereby affecting overall network performance.
 Network software
• Network software is defined as a wide range of software that streamlines the
operations, design, monitoring, and implementation of computer networks.
Network software is a fundamental element for any networking system
. It helps administrators and security personnel reduce network complexities,
and manage, monitor, and better control network traffic. Network software
plays a crucial role in managing a network infrastructure and simplifying IT
operations by facilitating communication, security, content, and data sharing.
• Network software offers useful benefits to organizations. It has become an
important tool in facilitating round-the-clock communication and allowing an
uninterrupted exchange of information. One of the most significant
advantages of network software is its direct correlation with productivity. The
centralized nature of network software increases the productivity of the
complete system. This helps reduce end-user technical support problems.
 Functions of network software

• User management allows administrators to add or

remove users from the network. This is particularly
useful when hiring or relieving
• File management lets administrators decide the
location of data storage and control user access to
that data.
• Access enables users to enjoy uninterrupted access
to network resources.
• Network security systems assist administrators in
looking after security and preventing data breaches.
• Application layer
• The first component is the application layer or the application plane, which
refers to the applications and services running on the network. It is a program
that conveys network information, the status of the network, and the network
requirements for particular resource availability and application.
• This is done through the control layer via application programming interfaces
(APIs). The application layer also consists of the application logic and one or
more API drivers.
• 2. Control layer
• The control layer lies at the centre of the architecture and is one of the most
important components of the three layers.
• You could call it the brain of the whole system. Also called the controller or the
control plane, this layer also includes the network control software and the
network operating system within it.
• It is the entity in charge of receiving requirements from the applications and
translating the same to the network components. The control of the
infrastructure layer or the data plane devices is also done via the controller.
• In simple terms, the control layer is the intermediary that facilitates
communicat ion between the top and bottom layers through APIs interfaces.
• 3. Infrastructure layer
• The infrastructure layer, also called the data plane, consists of
the actual network devices (both physical and virtual) that
reside in this layer. They are primarily responsible for moving
or forwarding the data packets after receiving due instructions
from the control layer. In simple terms, the data plane in the
network architecture components physically handles user
traffic based on the commands received by the controller.
• The application program interface (API)ties all three
components together. Communication between these three
layers is facilitated through northbound and southbound
application program interfaces. The northbound API ties
communication between the application and the control
layers, whereas the southbound API enables communication
between the infrastructure and the control layers.
 OSI Model

• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference

model that describes how information from a software
application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a
particular network function.
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and
manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer
can be performed independently.
• The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers
and lower layers.
• The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the
application related issues, and they are implemented
only in the software. The application layer is closest to
the end user. Both the end user and the application layer
interact with the software applications. An upper layer
refers to the layer just above another layer.
• The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data
transport issues. The data link layer and the physical
layer are implemented in hardware and software. The
physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is
closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is
mainly responsible for placing the information on the
physical medium.
Physical layer
 Functions of a Physical layer:

• The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
• It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
• It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.
• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
• Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
• Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.
Data-Link Layer
• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.
• It contains two sub-layers:
– Logical Link Control Layer
• It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver
that is receiving.
• It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
• It also provides flow control.
– Media Access Control Layer
• A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and
the network's physical layer.
• It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
• Functions of the Data-link layer
• Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets known as
Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is
added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source address.
• Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to
the frame that contains a destination address. The frame
is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in
the header.
• Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of
the Data-link layer.
• It is the technique through which the constant data rate
is maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted.
• It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server
with higher processing speed does not exceed the
receiving station, with lower processing speed.
• Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding
a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which
is added to the message frame before it is sent to
the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr,
then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for
the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
• Access Control: When two or more devices are
connected to the same communication channel,
then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link
at a given time.
Network Layer
 FEATURES OF NETWORK LAYER

• It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the

location of devices on the network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source to the
destination based on the network conditions, the priority of
service, and other factors.
• The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding
the packets.
• Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this
layer and used to provide the routing services within an
internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as
Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and
Ipv6.
 Functions of Network Layer
• :
• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility
of the network layer. It provides a logical connection between
different devices.
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination
address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to
identify the device on the internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer,
and it determines the best optimal path out of the multiple
paths from source to the destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the
upper layer and converts them into packets. This process is
known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
Transport Layer
 FEATURES OF TRANPORT LAYER
• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that
messages are transmitted in the order in which they
are sent and there is no duplication of data.
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to
transfer the data completely.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts
them into smaller units known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it
provides a point-to-point connection between source
and destination to deliver the data reliably.
 Functions of Transport Layer:

• Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs

simultaneously due to this reason, the transmission of data from source
to the destination not only from one computer to another computer but
also from one process to another process.
• The transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as
a service-point address or port address.
• The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one
computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport
layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the
message from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple
segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that
uniquely identifies each segment.
• When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport
layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
• Connection control: Transport layer provides two services
Connection-oriented service and connectionless service.
• A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual
packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the
destination.
• A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in
the single route.
• Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control
but it is performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error
control. Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across
the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that message
reach at the destination without any error.
protocols used in transport layer are:
• Transmission Control Protocol
– It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the
internet.
– It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
– When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides
the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over
the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at
the destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in
the correct order at the receiving end.
• User Datagram Protocol
– User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
– It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send
any acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not
wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Session Layer
 Functions of Session layer:

• It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

• The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes
the interaction between communicating devices.
• Functions of Session layer:
• Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates
a dialog between two processes or we can say that it allows the
communication between two processes which can be either half-
duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the
middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take
place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
• 6
Presentation Layer
 Features of Presentation layer:

• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with

the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems.
• It acts as a data translator for a network.
• This layer is a part of the operating system that
converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the
syntax layer.
 FUNCTIONS OF PRESENTATION LAYER:

• Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in

the form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers
use different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the
data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes
the common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving
end.
• Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another
form and sends the resulting message over the network.
• Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data,
i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is
very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
Application Layer
 Functions of Application layer:

• An application layer serves as a window for

users and application processes to access
network service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency,
resource allocation, etc.
• An application layer is not an application, but it
performs the application layer functions.
• This layer provides the network services to the
end-users.
 Functions of Application layer:

• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An

application layer allows a user to access the files in
a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a
computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the
facility for email forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the
distributed database sources and is used to provide
that global information about various objects.
TCP/IP MODEL IN COMPUTER NETWORK
 FEATURES OF TCP/IP MODEL
• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application
layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer and
physical layer.
• The first four layers provide
• physical standards,
• network interface,
• internetworking, and
• transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of
the OSI model.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, and each of them provides specific functionality.
 Network Access Layer

• A network access layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP

model.
• A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and
Data Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the
network.
• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the
data between two devices on the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP
datagram into frames transmitted by the network and
mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are Ethernet, token ring,
FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
 Features of Internet Layer

• An internet layer/network layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
• The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
protocols used in this layer are:

• IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part
of the entire TCP/IP suite.
• Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
• IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP
addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to
identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.
• Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data
is to be transmitted.
 Features of Internet Layer

• Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the
transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and
received securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
• Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP
datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit
(MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP
protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the
local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate
router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an
original message.
• Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN,
MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on
the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be
accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as
routers.
• ARP Protocol
• ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
• ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP address.
• The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
– ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it broadcasts the ARP request
to the network.
– ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and process the request, but only
recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient
adds the physical address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header
• ICMP Protocol
• ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
• It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram problems
back to the sender.
• A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable to route
the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or network
congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
• An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
– ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
– ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding or not.
• The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The
responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
• ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because the IP
datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that it is passed
to.
 Features of
Transmission control protocol.
• The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is
being sent over the network.
• The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control
protocol.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
– It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
– It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
– User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender
that user datagram has been damaged
– UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program that has
created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application
program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
– UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain any
ID of a data segment.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

– It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

– It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and
it is active for the duration of the transmission.
– TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits
the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments
must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is
considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
– At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller
units known as segment, and each segment contains a
sequence number which is required for reordering the frames
to form an original message.
– At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders
them based on sequence numbers.
 Features of Application Layer

• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

• It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of
representation.
• This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with
another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
• There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every
application cannot be placed inside the application layer except
those who interact with the communication system. For example:
text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web
browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network
where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.
 PROTOCOLS USED IN THE APPLICATION LAYER:

• HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This

protocol allows us to access the data over the world wide web. It
transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is
known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to
use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from
one document to another.
• SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management
Protocol. It is a framework used for managing the devices on the
internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The
TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple
mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to
another e-mail address.
 PROTOCOLS USED IN THE APPLICATION LAYER:

• DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is

used to identify the connection of a host to the internet
uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of
addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the
address is known as Domain Name System.
• TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It
establishes the connection between the local computer and
remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears
to be a terminal at the remote system.
• FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard
internet protocol used for transmitting the files from one
computer to another computer.
Thank you