Integrated Circuits and Application

ECE2001B
Contents:
Op-amp Parameters
Effect of Temperature on Parameters
Frequency response of Op-amp
Inverting,Non Inverting Configuration
Summing, Averaging,Scaling Amplifiers
Voltage Followers
Subtractors,Difference Amplifiers
Symbol of Op-Amp
 1. Input Offset Voltage:
ut offset voltage of Op-Amp Vio is the
erential input voltage that exists between
input terminals of OpAmp with out any
ernal inputs applied.

Input offset voltage is also defined as the voltage that must be applied
between the two input terminals of an OPAMP to null or zero the output fig
shows that two dc voltages are applied to input terminals to make the
output zero.

Vio = Vdc1 – Vdc2

Vdc1 and Vdc2 are dc voltages and Rs represents the source resistance. Vio
is the
difference of Vdc1 and Vdc2.
It may be positive or negative. For a 741C OPAMP the maximum value of
Vio is 6mV.
It means a voltage ± 6 mV is required to one of the input to reduce the
output offset voltage to zero. The smaller the input offset voltage the better
 2. Output Offset Voltage:

to input offset voltage Vio output offset

age Voo exists between output terminals of
mp.

caused by mismatch between input terminals

pamp.The two transistors between input
rential stage do not have exactly similar characteristics
ce collector currents in two transistors are not same.
ch causes differential output voltage from first stage.

output of first stage is amplified by following stages

aggrevates more mismatch in them.

ce output offset voltage Voo is defined as output voltage caused by mismatching

ween two input terminals.
is DC voltage and it may be positive or negative
 3. Input Bias
Current:
As shown in figure both input terminals are
Grounded and no input is applied to opamp

The input bias current IB is the average of the current entering

the input terminals of a balanced amplifier i.e.
IB = (IB1 + IB2 ) / 2
IB1:DC bias current entering into non-inverting input
IB2: DC bias current entering into inverting input

For 741C IB(max) = 700 nA and for precision 741C IB = ± 7 nA

 4. Input offset
Current:
The input offset current Iio is the difference between
the currents into inverting and
non-inverting terminals of a balanced amplifier.
Iio = | IB1 – IB2 |
The Iio for the 741C is 200nA maximum. As the
matching between two input terminals
is improved, the difference between IB1 and
IB2 becomes smaller, i.e. the Iio value decreases further.
For a precision OPAMP 741C, Iio is 6 nA
 5. Differential Input Resistance: (Ri)

the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either th

rting or non-inverting input terminal with the other termina
unded. For the 741C the input resistance is
ively high 2 MΩ. For some OPAMP it may be up to 1000 G o

6.Input Capacitance: (Ci)

Ci is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at
either the inverting and non-inverting terminal with the othe
erminal connected to ground. A typical value of
Ci is 1.4 pf for the 741C.
7.Offset Voltage Adjustment Range:

OPAMP have offset voltage null capability. Pins 1 and 5 are m

t null for this purpose. It can be done by connecting 10 K oh
een 1 and 5 as shown in figure
arying the potentiometer, output offset voltage
h inputs grounded) can be reduced to zero volts.
the offset voltage adjustment range is the
e through which the input offset voltage can be adjusted
arying 10 K pot.
the 741C the offset voltage adjustment range is ± 15 mV.
 8. Input Voltage Range

Input voltage range is the range of a common mode input signal for
which a
differential amplifier remains linear.
It is used to determine the degree of matching between the inverting
and
non-inverting input terminals. For the 741C,
the range of the input common mode voltage is ± 13V maximum. This
means that the
common mode voltage applied at both input terminals can be as high as
9. Common
+13V or as
Mode Rejection Ratio­(CMRR).
low as –13V.
RR is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain A d to the common mode
age gain ACM
RR = Ad / ACM.
the 741C, CMRR is 90 dB typically.
higher the value of CMRR the better is the matching between two input termin
the smaller is the output common mode voltage.
10. Supply voltage Rejection Ratio: (SVRR)

is the ratio of the change in the input offset voltage to the

sponding change in power supply voltages.
s expressed in m V / V or in decibels, SVRR can be defined a

e is the change in the input supply voltage

Vio is the corresponding change in the offset voltage.
e 741C, SVRR = 150 µ V / V.
41C, SVRR is measured for both supply magnitudes increasi
creasing
taneously, with R3 ≤10K. For same OPAMPS, SVRR is separ
fied as positive SVRR and negative SVRR.
11. Large Signal Voltage Gain

e the OPAMP amplifies difference voltage between

nput terminals, the voltage gain of the amplifier is defined a

ge Gain=

use output signal amplitude is much large than the input sig
oltage gain is commonly called large signal voltage gain.
741C is voltage gain is 200,000 typically.
12. Output voltage Swing:
The ac output compliance PP is the maximum unclipped peak to
peak output voltage that an OPAMP can produce. Since the
quiescent output is ideally zero, the ac output voltage can swing
positive or negative. This also indicates the values of positive and
negative saturation voltages of the OPAMP. The output voltage
never exceeds these limits for a given supply voltages +V CC and –
VEE. For a 741C it is ± 13 V.

13. Output Resistance: (Ro)

Ro is the equivalent resistance that can be measured between the
output terminal of the OPAMP and the ground. It is 75 ohms for the
741C OPAMP.
14. Output Short circuit Current :
In some applications, an OPAMP may drive a load resistance that is approximately
zero. Even its output impedance is 75 ohm but cannot supply large currents. Since
OPAMP is low power device and so its output current is limited. The 741C can
supply a maximum short circuit output current of only 25mA.

15. Supply Current :

IS is the current drawn by the OPAMP from the supply. For the 741C OPAMP
the supply current is 2.8 mA.

16. Power Consumption:

Power consumption (PC) is the amount of quiescent power (v in= 0V) that must be
consumed by the OPAMP in order to operate properly. The amount of power consumed
by the 741C is 85 m W.
 Ideal versus Typical Parameters Values of IC741C

Sr.No Parameter Ideal Value Typical Value of IC741C

.
1 Input Resistance Ri= ∞ (infinite) 2 M ohms
2 Output Resistance Ro= o 75 ohms
3 Voltage Gain Av=∞ 2 * 10^5
4 CMRR Infinite 90 dB
5 Offset Voltage,Offset 0 6mV,200 nA,500 nA
Current, Bias current respectively
6 Slew Rate Infinite 0.5V/us

7 Bandwidth Infinite 1MHz

8 SVRR/PSRR 0 150 uV/V or 96dB

Effect of Temperature on Parameters

Op-amp Temperature Dependence

One of the practical op-amp limitations is the temperature
dependence of internal parameters. Most such variations are
taken care of by the negative feedback which is used in all op-
amp circuits. The only temperature variations which are of
practical significance are those of the the input offset voltage
and current. When the offset voltage has been trimmed to zero,
temperature variations can cause there to some drift of the
output.
Thermal Drift
quivalent Circuit of Non Ideal Op Amp
The equivalent circuit model of an
op amp
is shown in Figure.
• The output section consists
of a voltage-controlled source
in series
with the output

• input resistance Ri is the

Thevenin equivalent resistance
Figure :Ideal Op Amp
seen at the input terminals.
Equivalent Circuit
• the output resistance Ro is the
Thevenin equivalent resistance
seen at the output.

• The differential input voltage 𝑣i𝑑

is given by
=-
where V1 is the voltage between
the inverting terminal and ground
and V2 is the voltage between the
Equivalent Circuit of Op Amp
The op amp senses the difference between the two inputs,
multiplies it by the gain A, and causes the resulting voltage to
appear at the output. Thus, the output 𝑣𝑜 is given by
= (-)

Ad is called the open-loop voltage gain because it is the gain of the

Op Amp without any external feedback from output to input. Table
below gives typical range of Op-Amp Parameters
 Ideal voltage Transfer Curve
A practical limitation of the op amp is that the magnitude of its output
voltage cannot
exceed |VCC|. In other words, the output voltage is dependent on
and is limited by the power supply voltage. Figure 1.4 illustrates that
the opamp can
operate i
n three modes, depending on the differential input voltage vid:

1. Positive saturation, V𝑜=𝑉𝑐𝑐.

2. Linear region, −𝑉𝑐𝑐≤V𝑜=A𝑉i𝑑≤𝑉𝑐𝑐.

3. Negative saturation, V𝑜=−𝑉EE .
f we attempt to increase vid beyond the
linear range, the op amp becomes saturated and
yields 𝑣𝑜=𝑉𝑐𝑐 or 𝑣𝑜=−𝑉𝑐𝑐. Here, we will assume
hat our op amps operate in the linear mode.
This means that the output voltage is restricted by
−𝑉𝑐𝑐≤ Vo ≤𝑉𝑐𝑐
 AC Parameters of Op-
Amp
requency Response , Band width and slew Ra
 Frequency Response
1. Op Amp gain is a complex number that is function
of frequency
2. Gain will have specific magnitude as well as phase
angle.
3. The manner in which Op Amp responds to different
frequencies is called frequency response.
4. A graph of magnitude(numerical value or decibels)
of gain vs frequency is also called frequency
Bode Plot
response plot.
Composed of magnitude vs frequency and phase angle vs
frequency response.
Generally used for stability determination.
Op-amp Frequency Response
 Frequency Response of internally compensated Op Amp

uency Response of 741 C Internally compensated Op Amp has unity gain bandw
z and single break frequency fo before unity gain bandwidth

• At break
frequency
The open loop
gain
Is down 3dB or
0.707
of its value at 0
Hz dc.

• Gain of opamp
remains Constant
till break
frequency.

• The gain rolls off

at the rate 20 db
per decade after
 Frequency Response of internally compensated Op Amp

41 Op Amp 30 pf capacitor is internal compensating compo

ntrols open loop gain to allow it to roll off at a rate of

dB /decade.

rnally compensated Op Amps have very small open

p bandwidth.

y are simply called compensated Op Amps

High Frequency Op Amp Equivalent Circuit
Two major sources responsible for
capacitor C in high frequency model

1. Physical Characteristics of semiconductor

devices: As Op Amp is made up of BJTs and
FETs the junction capacitances of these devices
become dominant at high frequency.
2. Internal Construction of Op Amp: All
resistors transistors and some times capacitors
are integrated on single substrate. Substrate
acts as insulator and separates these
components. The components are connected by
conducting paths. These conducting paths
separated by substrate act as capacitor.
3. Op Amp with single break frequency is
represented by one capacitor in the model.
Open loop voltage gain as a function of frequency
………….(3)
Where )= Open loop voltage gain as function of
frequency
A = Gain of Op Amp at 0 Hz.
f = Operating Frequency (Hz)
= Break frequency of Op Amp.
The break frequency depends on value of C and
output resistance
Equation (3) is important because it indicates that
open-loop gain of Op Amp is complex quantity and is
function of frequency.
Open loop voltage gain as a function of frequency

Being complex in nature the gain can be expressed

in a polar form as follows
The open loop gain magnitude is
)= …….(4)
And Phase angle )……..(5)
Where f is used to indicate magnitude of gain and
phase angle of gain are functions of frequency.
Using equation (4)and(5) magnitude and phase Vs
frequency plots can be obtained.
Open loop voltage gain as a function of frequency

)= …….(4)
The same equation in dB can be expressed as
) dB=20 log A-20 log ……(5)
If =5 Hz, A=200,000 for the 741 C. Substituting
these values in equation 5
We get DC gain of 106 dB.
Gain in decibel at different frequencies , including at
 Observations from gain Calculations
1. The open loop gain (f) in decibel is approximately constant from 0 Hz
to break frequency .
2. When the input signal frequency f is equal to break frequency (f) in
decibel is 3 decibel down from its value at 0 Hz. For this reason it is
sometimes called -3dB frequency. It is also known as corner
frequency.
3. The open loop gain (f) is approximately constant upto break
frequency , but there after it decreases 20 dB each time there is
tenfold increase (one decade) in frequency. The gain rolls off at a rate
of 20db / decade or gain rolls off at a rate of 6 dB/octave , where
octave represents twofold increase in frequency.
4. At some specific value of the input signal frequency , the open loop
gain (f) dB is zero. This specific frequency is called unity gain
bandwidth also called gain bandwidth product.
5. UGB of 741 Op Amp is 1MHz.
6. The product of open loop gain A of opamp and the frequency of
operation f provides the bandwidth.
7. BW=A×f
8. Bandwidth is also determined from rise time specification by using the
relation

BW=
ain in decibels vs Frequency for 741 Op Amp
hase Angles at various frequencies for 741 Op Amp
Phase Vs Frequency for 741 Op Amp
Observations from Phase Plot
1. Phase angle of Op Amp with single break
frequency varies between 0 and -90. Phase shift
between the input and output voltages is 90that
is that is output voltage lags input voltage by 90
2. can be calculated as
Numerical
Problem 1: An opamp has a rise time() of
0.7µs. Determine unity gain bandwidth.

BW=

Ans:500KHz

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 Limitations of Op Amp Open loop
configuration
1. In open loop configurations due to high gain of
Op Amp, clipping of output waveform can occur
when output exceeds saturation level of Op Amp.
2. This feature actually makes it possible to amplify
very low frequency signal of the order of
microvolts or even less and amplification can be
achieved accurately without any distortion .
However , signals of such magnitudes are
susceptible to noise and amplification from those
applications is almost impossible to obtain in
laboratory
Limitations of Op Amp Open loop
configuration
3. Open loop gain of Op Amp is not a constant and
varies with temperature and variations in power
supply.
4. The bandwidth of open loop Op amps is
negligibly small. This makes open loop
configuration of Op Amp unsuitable for AC
applications open loop bandwidth of 741 is only
5 Hz but in almost all AC applications bandwidth
requirement is very large.
Slew Rate
Slew Rate: Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of
change of output voltage per unit of time under large
signal conditions and is expressed in volts / µ secs.

Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an OPAMP

can change in response to changes in the input frequency
with input amplitude constant. The slew rate changes
with change in voltage gain and is normally specified at
unity gain.
If the slope requirement is greater than the slew rate,
then distortion occurs. For the 741C the slew rate is low
0.5 V / µS. which limits its use in higher frequency
applications.
Slew Rate

Slew rate of Op Amp is related to its frequency

response .
The Op Amps with wide bandwidth have better
slew rate.
It is determined by number of factors such as
amplifier gain , compensating capacitors and the
change in polarity of output voltage.
It is also function of temperature and reduces due
to rise in temperature.
Voltage follower large-signal Pulse Response
 Specifying Slew Rate indirectly

Specified as peak to peak output voltage swing as a function of frequency

Slew Rate limiting of Sine Wave
Slew Rate limiting of
Sine Wave
Figure shows as a large amplitude high
frequency sine wave with peak amplitude of .
=(1)
Therefore the output is given by
=(2)
The rate of change of output is given by
=
Slew Rate limiting of Sine Wave

The maximum rate of change of the output

occurs when .
That is, Slew Rate = = …(5)
Or Slew Rate, SR= 2 V/S
The maximum frequency at which an undistorted
output voltage with a peak value can be obtained
is determined by
= ……..(6)
Slew Rate limiting of Sine Wave

The maximum peak sinusoidal voltage that can be

obtained at frequency f is given by
= ……….(7)
For 741 opamp slew rate is 0.5 V/ µsec
Slew Rate limiting of Sine Wave

Example problems on slew rate, Thermal Drift,

offset voltage offset current, Gain Bandwidth
product.
Slew Rate limiting of Sine Wave
Problem 1: Assuming slew rate for 741 is 0.5V/µsec , what
is the maximum undistorted sine-wave that can be obtained
for (a) 12V peak, and (b) 2V peak Ans :6.63KHz,
39.8KHz

Problem 2: IC 741 is used as inverting amplifier with a gain

of 100 dB, The voltage gain vs frequency characteristic is
flat up to 10 KHz. Determine the maximum peak to peak
input signal that can be applied without any distortion in the
output. Ans:7.96V

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Problem 3

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 Problem 4

Problem 5

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A list of parameters that must be
considered for AC and DC Applications
Sr. For AC APPLICATIONS Consider For DC Applications Consider
no.
1. Input Resistance Input Resistance

2. Output Resistance Output Resistance

3. Large Signal Voltage Gain Large Signal Voltage Gain

4. Output Voltage Swing Output Voltage Swing

5. Average Input Offset Voltage and Input Offset Voltage and current
current drifts drifts

6. Long-Term input offset voltage Long-Term input offset voltage

stability stability

7. Transient Response, Slew Rate , -

Equivalent input noise voltage
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and current
 inverting
output
non-inverting

Op-amp circuit symbol

Open loop mode

Vo = Aod ( v2 – v1)
Aod is referred to as the open
loop gain.
Notice that is v2 = v1, the
open loop gain equals to 
Determine the output voltage in each of
following cases for open loop differential
amplifier
a]Vi1=5 µV DC, Vi2= -7 µV
b] Vi1=10mV RMS, Vi2=20mV RMS opamp is 741
with A=200000.
= =A × -)
A: Large signal voltage gain
:Difference input VoltageV
Using above equation DC output voltage :2.4V
AC output voltage considering both the signals of
same frequency AC Output voltage is :-2000V RMS
However opamp saturates at ±14 V

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 Closed loop Op Amp
*Benefits of negative feedback: decrease in harmonic or
nonlinear distortion, reduction in the effect of input
offset voltage at the output, also reduces effect of
variation in temperature and supply voltages on output
of Op-amp

As open loop gain of Op Amp is very high only the

smaller signals of microvolts or less can be
amplified.
For the reasons mentioned earlier in slide no 44
and 45 open loop Op Amp is not used in linear
applications.
We can select as well as control the gain of the Op
Amp if we introduce the modification in the basic
circuit
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•Two main characteristics:
• We want the open loop gain to be equal to  which
means that v2 = v1

• We also want the input resistance to be equal to  ,

hence there is no current going into the op-amp
Virtual short and Virtual ground

Voltage between inverting and non-inverting

terminals of OPAMP is output voltage divided
by open loop gain of OPAMP. Open loop gain
being very large, this voltage is very small.
Practically zero. This is virtual short.

Virtual ground concept is NOT valid for

positive feedback or open loop operation of
OPAMP.
Unlike actual short, there is no current through
this short. Hence the term VIRTUAL.
Virtual Ground

If the non-inverting (+) terminal of OP-AMP is connected to

ground, then due to the "virtual short" existing between the two
input terminals, the inverting (-) terminal also be at ground
potential. hence it is said to be as "virtual ground".

Vo = (V1 –
V2)
Av
Virtual Short
The input impedance (Ri) of an OP-AMP is ideally infinite.
Hence current "I" flowing from one input terminal to the other
will be zero.
Thus the voltage drop across Ri will be zero and both input
terminals will be at the same potential. In other words they are
virtually shorted to each other.
Inverting Amplifier
Inverting Amplifier

Op-amp as an inverting amplifier

Voltage at node 1 (inverting) = voltage at node 2 (non-inverting )

KCL at node 1:
(Vi – 0) / R1 = (0 – Vo) / R2
Vi / R1 = - Vo / R2

Vo = - R2
Vi R1
Exercise

Gain = - (R2 / R1) = -(150/12) = -12.5

Non-Inverting Amplifier
 Non - Inverting Amplifier

Voltage at node 1 (inverting) = voltage at node 2 (non-inverting )

KCL at node 1:
(0– Vi) / R1 = (Vi – Vo) / R2

-(Vi / R1) = (Vi / R2) – (Vo / R2)

Vo / R2 = (Vi / R2) + (Vi / R1) = Vi 1R2 + 1R1

Noninverting amplifier
Vo / Vi = R2 1R2 + R
11
Comparison of Inverting and Non-Inverting
Amplifier
Voltage Follower / Buffer Amplifier

Vo = Vi
Hence, gain = 1
 Summing Amplifier
Summing Amplifier

i1 + i2 + i3 – i4 – 0 = 0
Output voltage

Example

Design a summing amplifier as shown in figure to produce a specific

output signal, such that vo = 1.25 – 2.5 cos t volt. Assume the input
signals are vI1 = -1.0 V, vI2 = 0.5 cos t volt. Assume the feedback
resistance RF = 10 k
Solution: output voltage
Explore Summing Amplifier as average, scalar and
attenuator
Difference Amplifier/Subtractor

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117107094/12
Since there are two inputs superposition theorem
can be used to find the output voltage. When Vb=
0, then the circuit becomes inverting amplifier,
hence the output due to Va only is
Vo(a) = -(Rf / R1) Va
Similarly when, Va = 0, the configuration is a
inverting amplifier having a voltage divided
network at the noninverting input
Exaples: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117107094/12
Numerical on DC
PSRR/SVRR
1. For certain opamp PSRR is 70dB. What is
numerical value of PSRR.
2. For 741 opamp supply voltage rejection ratio is
150µV/V. Calculate change in opamps input
offset voltage Vio if supply voltages are varied
from ±10V to ±12V.
3. For certain opamp change in opamp’s input
offset voltage Vio caused by variation in supply
voltage is 60µV. Determine change in supply
voltages. Assume that SVRR for opamp is
104dB.

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Numerical
1. For certain opamp , CMRR is 100dB, and
differential gain is , Find common mode gain of
opamp.
2. An opamp has IB1=400nA, IB2= 300nA.
Determine bias current IB and offset current
Ios.

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 Problem 6

=- = -10

Problem 7

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 Problem 8

Problem 9

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 Va Vb

NON - INVERTING INVERTING INVERTING

Calculate the input voltage if the final output, VO is 10.08 V.

Finally: Then: Have to work backwards:

Va = (1 + 10/5) V1 Vb = -(5/5) Va Vo = -(100/5) Vb
-0.504 = - Va 10.08 = -20 Vb
0.504 = 3V1
Va = 0.504 V Vb = -0.504 V
V1 = 0.168 V
What is the value of Vin1 from the figure above?

12 = - 24 [ Vin1 / 24 + (-2) / 24 + (-6) / 24 ]

12 = - [ Vin1 – 2 – 6 ]
12 = - Vin1 + 2 + 6
Vin1 = - 4 V
 Va

INVERTING SUMMING

Calculate the output voltage, VO if V1 = V2 = 700 mV

Va = -(500/250) 0.7 Then:

Va = -1.4 V Vo = - 500 [ Va / 100 + V2 / 50 ]
Vo = - 500 [ -1.4 / 100 + 0.7 / 50 ]
Vo = 0 V
Calculate the output voltage VO of the operational amplifier
circuit as shown in the figure.