Engineering Chemistry (24CT101)

Module 2 -UNIT 2: Chemistry for Electronics &

Computing

Faculty: Dr. Sireesha Malladi

Associate Professor
Department Chemistry
School of AS&H
Unit 2-Chemistry for Electronics & Computing - Syllabus
• Introduction to electronic memory devices,
Classification of electronic memory devices.
Organic- Inorganic hybrid materials.
• Display Systems- Electromagnetic spectrum,
Interaction of light with matter, Photo and electro
active materials properties and applications
(OLED’s, QLED’s).
• Introduction to and applications of computational
chemistry.
Outcome: Analyze possible devices and display
systems and their relevance to electromagnetic
spectrum.
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Electronic Memory Devices
• As the performance of digital gadgets for information technology advances, the
complexity of data storage devices increases correspondingly.
 Conventional memory devices are implemented
on semiconductor-based integrated circuits, such
as transistors and capacitors.
 In order to achieve greater density of data storage
and faster access to information, more
components are deliberately packed onto a single
chip.
 The feature size of transistors has decreased from
Chip size is getting smaller
130 nm in the year 2000 to 3 nm at present.
 2 nm chips are expected to arrive around 2025.
 In conventional silicon-based electronic memory,
data are stored based on the amount of charge
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 Electronic memory devices
Memory device: A piece of hardware used to store the data. Most
electronic devices such as computers, mobile phones, laptops, tablets,
etc., all have a storage device that stores data.
Ex: Hard drives, CD, DVD, USB, External hard disc

Evolution of Storage Devices

An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage which is

fast in response and compact in size, and can be read and written when
coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor).
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Electronic Memory Devices

 The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a means for storing and
accessing binary digital data sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”.
 Each 0 or 1 is called a bit, and a group of bits is called a byte. The number
of bits in a byte can vary, but most modern computers use 8 bits per byte.

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 Electronic memory devices
Classification of Electronic Memory Devices Based on storage type

Non volatile memory –Permanent

Volatile memory – Temporary
ROM-Read only memory
DRAM-Dynamic Random
RAM-Random access memory
access memory
WORM-write once read many times
SRAM-Static Random Access
EPROM(Erasable programmable read-only
Memory
memory).
EEPROM- Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read-Only Memory. 6
Non-Volatile Electronic Memory Devices:
ROM: Read Only Memory WORM (Write Once Read Many times):
 ROM is a non-volatile memory.  Describes a data storage device in
 Information stored in ROM is which information once written,
permanent. cannot be modified.
 Information and programs stored on  This write protection affords the

it, we can only read. assurance that the data cannot be

 Information and programs are stored tampered with once it is written to
on ROM in binary format. the device, excluding the possibility
 It is used in the start-up process of of data loss from human error,
the computer. computer bugs, or malware.

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Non-Volatile Electronic Memory Devices:
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) :
 EPROM also called EROM, is a type of PROM but it can be
reprogrammed.
 The data stored in EPROM can be erased and
reprogrammed again by ultraviolet light.
 Reprogrammed of it is limited.
 EPROMs are widely used in the ultraviolet (UV) light for a
specified duration. The UV field of electronics and
computing for storing small amounts of data that need to
be retained even when the power is turned off.
 EPROMs can be erased by exposing them to light removes
the charge trapped in the floating-gate transistors,
resetting the cells to their unprogrammed state. Once
erased, EPROMs can be reprogrammed with new data. 8
Non-Volatile Electronic Memory Devices:
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) :
 Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory chips consist of a grid of memory cells,
each capable of storing a single bit of data. Each cell is composed of a floating-gate
transistor that can be electrically programmed to store a charge, representing either
a “0” or a “1.”
 EPROMs have been widely used in the past for firmware storage, microcontroller
programming, and data storage in various electronic devices.

However, they have largely been replaced by other non-

volatile memory technologies such as Electrically
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)
and Flash memory, which offer faster erasure and
reprogramming times, higher storage densities, and
lower power consumption.

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Non-Volatile Electronic Memory Devices (Hybrid type):
Hybrid memories can be read and written as desired, like RAM, but
maintain their contents without electrical power, just like ROM. It is
a Non-Volatile memory.
Flash Memory is an electronic non-volatile computer memory
storage medium that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed
and it is used for storage and for transferring data between a
personal computer (PC) and digital devices.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)
 Electronically erasable programmable read only memory, is a
standalone memory storage device such as a USB drive.
 It is a type of data memory device using an electronic device to
erase or write digital data.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)
and Flash memory, which offer faster erasure and reprogramming
times, higher storage densities, and lower power consumption. 10
Volatile Electronic Memory Devices:
RAM: Random Access Memory
 Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of computer memory that stores data
temporarily while a computer is running. It’s called “random access” because the
computer can access any part of the memory directly and quickly.

DRAM: (Dynamic Random Access Memory)

 It is a type of volatile random-access memory that stores each bit of
data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit.
 Since real-world capacitors have charge-leaking tendencies, the stored
data eventually fade unless the device is refreshed periodically.
Because of this periodical refresh requirement, it is a volatile and
dynamic memory.
 The volatility, ultrafast data access time and structural simplicity hold
great promise for high density and fast responding performance,
making DRAM memory the main memory for most computers. 11
Volatile Electronic Memory Devices:
DRAM: (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
 All DRAM chips manufactured to date use capacitors containing electrodes made of
doped silicon or polysilicon and dielectric films of silicon dioxide and/or silicon
nitride.

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Volatile Electronic Memory Devices:
SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
 SRAM is another type of volatile memory. The term “static” differentiates it from
“dynamic” RAM (DRAM) which must be periodically refreshed.
 SRAM exhibits data remanence (the ability of a material to retain
magnetization, equal to the magnetic flux density of the material after the
removal of the magnetizing field), but it is still volatile and the stored data are
eventually lost when the memory remains in the power-off state.
 SRAM is faster and more reliable than the more common
DRAM. Due to its high cost, SRAM is often used only as a
memory cache.
 It is made up of metal-oxide-semiconductor
field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).

MOSFET
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 Electronic memory devices
Classification of Electronic Memory Devices based on Device Structure

Electronic memory devices

Transistor-Type Resistor-Type
Electronic Memory Electronic Memory

Capacitor-Type Charge transfer-Type

Electronic Memory Electronic Memory

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 Electronic memory devices
•Transistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices:
Transistor-based memory devices use transistors as the
primary storage elements.
•Transistors are made from silicon, a semiconductor. It
is converted to p-type and n-type semiconductors by
doping with trivalent and pentavalent impurities.
•A transistor is a miniature electronic component that
can work either as an amplifier or a switch. A
computer memory chip consists of billions of
transistors; each transistor is working as a switch,
which can be switched ON or OFF.
•Each transistor can be in two different states and store
two different numbers, ZERO and ONE.
•Since the chip is made of billions of such transistors
and can store billions of Zeros and ones, almost every
number and letter can be stored.
•Examples: Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) is
common examples of transistor-based memory.
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 Electronic memory devices
•Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory: Capacitor-
based memory devices use capacitors to store
electrical charge as a representation of data.
The presence or absence of charge in the
capacitor corresponds to a binary 0 or 1.
•A capacitor consists of two metal plates that
are capable of storing an electric charge. It is
used to store data.
It is like a battery that holds data based on
energy. If the capacitor is charged, it holds the
binary numeral, “1” and holds “0” when the cell
is discharged.
Examples: Dynamic Random Access Memory
(DRAM) is a well-known capacitor-based
memory device. Each memory cell in DRAM
consists of a capacitor to store charge, along
with a transistor for access control. 16
 Electronic memory devices
•Resistor-Type Electronic Memory Devices:
Resistor-based memory devices (Resistive
random access memory (RRAM)) use the
electrical resistance of certain materials to store
data. The resistance of the material can be
altered to represent binary values.
•Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a
simple structure, having a metal-insulator-metal
(MIM) structure.
•The structure comprises an insulating layer (I)
sandwiched between the two metal (M)
electrodes and supported on a substrate (glass,
silicon wafer, plastic, or metal foil).
•Initially, the device is under a high resistance
state or “OFF” and logically “0”state.

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 Electronic memory devices
•Charge-Type Electronic Memory Devices: Charge
transfer memory devices rely on the movement of
charge carriers (typically electrons) with in a material to
store and retrieve data.
•Examples: Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) and Charge-
Coupled Memories (CCMs) are examples of charge-
transfer memory devices.
•A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as an
electron donor–acceptor (D–A) complex, characterized
by an electronic transition to an excited state in which a
partial transfer of charge occurs from the donor moiety
to the acceptor moiety.
•The conductivity of a CT complex is dependent on the
ionic binding between the D–A components.
•Many organic CT systems, including organometallic
complexes, carbon allotrope (fullerene, carbon
nanotubes and graphene)-based polymer complexes,
gold nanoparticle–polymer complexes, and single
polymers with intra-molecular D–A structures have
been explored for memory applications. 18
 Electronic memory devices
Organic-Based Memory Devices:
Stores data based on different
electrical conductivity states (ON and OFF
states) in response to an applied electric
field.
Organic molecular material used
to store the data is called organic– based
memory device.
There are three types of organic
memory devices.

1. Organic Small Molecules for Resistive

Electronic Memory
2. Polymer Based Materials for
Nonvolatile Memory Devices
3. Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials
for Resistive Memory Devices:
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 Electronic memory devices
Organic Small Molecules for Resistive
Electronic Memory:
Extensive studies have revealed that
organic small molecules could be applied
as excellent resistive memory materials,
attributing to their advantages of low cost,
light weight, mechanical flexibility, and
ease of processing. Many organic small
molecules have been reported to exhibit
resistive switching characteristics,
including the binary and even higher
multilevel nature.
A typical resistive memory device is
composed of one layer of active materials
sandwiched between two conductive
electrodes and the conductivity of a binary
memory can be switched between a low-
(“OFF”) and high-conductance (“ON”)
states under an external electric stimulus. 20
 Electronic memory devices
•Polymer Based Materials for Nonvolatile
Memory Devices:
•Polymer nonvolatile memory device appears
highly attractive owing to its potential usage
in data storage media.
• In particular, polymer memory devices have
attracted a lot of attention due to their simple
structure, three-dimensional stacking
capability, good scalability, high mechanical
flexibility.

Among the nonvolatile memory types,

the write-once read-many times (WORM)
memory and the hybrid rewritable (write-
read-erase-read) memory are usually
observed in polymeric memory
performance.
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 Electronic memory devices
A wide variety of polymeric materials have been extensively investigated for
their promising memory potential, including poly(N-vinyl carbazole) and
carbazole polymeric derivatives, polyimides, polythiophene and their
derivatives, nonconjugated and conjugated copolymer containing chelated
europium complexes, polyfluorene derivative, polyaniline composites, and
conjugated-polymer-functionalized graphene oxide

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Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation can be described as a wave
occurring simultaneously in electrical and magnetic
fields.

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Electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation, These waves differ from each other in wave length
and frequency.
It consists of gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible
radiation, infrared radiation, microwaves and radio waves.

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Interaction of light with matter

IR rays
Gama rays and X rays UV visible rays

Microwaves
Radio waves
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UV visible spectroscopy

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Interaction of light with matter

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Display Systems
Display system: Display is a out put device used to present
visual information.
Optoelectronic devices: are the electronic devices that can
manipulate and convert light into electrical signals or vice
versa. These display systems are widely used in applications
such as televisions, computer monitors, smartphones, and
wearable devices.
Example: Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light (visible
light or invisible infrared light) when an electric current is
passed through them. The light emission occurs as a result
of the recombination of electrons and holes within the
semiconductor material (aluminum gallium indium
phosphide alloys and indium gallium nitride alloys, Gallium
Arsenide Phosphides).

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Display Systems
Photoactive materials:
Photoactive materials are those
materials which can absorb light
and convert it into electrical energy
or that can emit light when excited.
Photoactive materials are
used in display systems to convert
electrical signals into visible light,
resulting in the creation of images
on a display screen.
For example, organic light-emitting
diodes (OLEDs) use a layer of
organic photoactive materials that
emit light when a voltage is applied
to them. The organic layer is
typically made up of small
molecules or polymers that are
specially designed to emit light
when excited. 29
Display Systems
Electroactive materials:
Electroactive materials are materials
that can change their optical, electrical,
or mechanical properties in response
to an external electric field. They
undergo change in their shape, size, or
optical properties under an electrical
field.
These materials have unique
properties, such as piezoelectricity or
electroluminescence that allow them
to be used in a variety of display
technologies. They provide unique
features such as high contrast and low
power consumption.
When an electric field is
applied to an electroactive material, it
emits light which is used to create the
image on the display. 30
Display Systems
Photoactive and electroactive
materials examples: Chemically, organic
compounds with extensive conjugation and
π-electron systems are capable of exhibiting
above mentioned set of properties.
Organic photoactive and
Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)
electroactive materials find applications in
organic photovoltaic devices (OPVs), Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK)]
organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDS), and
organic field-effect transistors (OFETS). Semiconducting polymers
They are also known as organic with high thermal stability,
solubility, good optical and
semiconductors.
mechanical properties.
Silicon nanocrystals in
optoelectronics is in the development of
efficient light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Silicon
nanocrystals can be incorporated into LEDs
to produce bright, efficient, and tunable
light emission.
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Display Systems
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s)
Electroluminescent devices based on organic materials are of
considerable interest owing to their attractive characteristics and potential
applications to flat panel displays.
An OLED is a device which emits light under application of an external
voltage. There are two main classes of OLED devices: those made with small
organic molecules and those made with organic polymers. OLEDs are thin
film devices consisting of a stack of organic layers sandwiched between two
electrodes
poly(9,9-alkylfluorene
poly-para-phenylene vinylene

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Display Systems
Properties of OLED
1. Thin and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them
suitable for use in curved or flexible displays
2 High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that they can
produce images with rich colors.
3. Fast response time: which means that they can switch on and off quickly,
resulting in smooth and seamless motion in video content
4. Wide viewing angle: which means that the image quality is maintained
even when viewed from different angles.
5. Energy efficiency: lower power consumption.
6. Long lifespan: OLEDs have a long lifespan

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Display Systems
Applications of OLED:
1. Televisions and displays: OLED displays are
used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and
other electronic devices.
2. Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source
of lighting in various applications, including
automotive lighting, street lighting, and
architectural lighting.
3. Wearable devices: The thin and flexible
nature of OLEDs makes them suitable for use in
wearable devices, such as smartwatches and
fitness trackers.
4. Automotive: OLEDs can be used in
automotive applications, such as dashboard
displays, interior lighting, and taillights.
5. Medical: OLEDs can be used in medical
applications, such as in surgical lighting and
medical imaging. They offer bright and highly
accurate lighting options that can help improve
medical procedures and diagnosis. 34
Display Systems
Quantum light emitting diodes (QD-
LEDs)
Quantum dots are semiconductor
nanocrystal that have unique optical
and electronic properties. QDs are
usually between 2 and 10 nanometers
in diameter, QDs have intrinsic
fluorescence emission spectra and can
emit light of different colors depending
PEDOT:PSS
on their size.
Quantum dot light emitting diodes are
a form of light emitting devices consist
of nano-scale crystals”. TFB
QLEDs are used in TVs, cell
phones, and digital cameras. They are
the next generation's display
technology after OLED displays.
Example: cadmium selenide (CdSe)
ZnSe, ZnTeSe nanocrystal or
quantum dots. 35
Display Systems
Properties of QLED
1. Accurate and vibrant colors: QLEDs are capable of producing highly accurate and
vibrant colors due to their use of quantum dots, which emit light of a specific color
when they are excited by a light source or an electrical current.
2. Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays
because they do not require as much backlighting.
3. High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the
difference between the darkest and brightest areas of the display is greater,
resulting in more detailed and lifelike images.
4. Long lifespan: QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays because
they do not suffer from the same issues of backlight burnout or color fading over
time.
5. Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which means that
they can display fast-moving images without motion blur or ghosting.
6. Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for the
creation of flexible displays that can be bent or curved

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Display Systems
Applications of QLED
1.Televisions and displays: QLED displays are commonly used in televisions,
monitors,smartphones, and other electronic devices. They offer superior image
quality and color accuracy compared to traditional LCD displays.
2.Lighting: QLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications,
including automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting. They offer
energy-efficient and highly customizable lighting options.
3.Medical imaging: QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in
MRI machines, to produce high-resolution and accurate images.
4.Virtual and augmented reality: QLED displays are suitable for use in virtual and
augmented reality applications due to their ability to produce vibrant and accurate
colors, which can enhance the immersive experience.
5.Advertising displays: QLED displays can be used in advertising displays, such as
digital billboards and signage, to produce high-quality and eye-catching visuals