DATA TRANSMISSION AND

ENCODING TECHNIQUES
MODULE 2
SYLLABUS
Analog and Digital
Analog: information that is continuous
Digital: information that is discrete states
An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.
A digital signal can have only a limited number of defined values.
Simple or composite signals
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.
- simple -cannot be decomposed into simpler signals.
- composite -composed of multiple sine waves.
 Peak amplitude
The absolute value of
its highest intensity,
proportional to the
energy it carries.

Fig shows ,Two signals

with two different
amplitudes,
Period and Frequency
● Period - the amount of time( in seconds ) a signal need to complete one
cycle
● Frequency- number of periods in one second
● Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.
Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different amplitudes
Time and Frequency domain
➔ The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to
time (it is an amplitude-versus-time plot).
➔ A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the peak value and the
frequency.(it is an amplitude-versus-frequency plot).
TRANSMISSION IMPAIREMENTS
The signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end
of the medium

- What is sent is not what is received

ATTENUATION
➔ “loss of energy”
➔ When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses
some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium.
➔ To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
DISTORTION
➔ “Signal changes its form or shape”
➔ Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
➔ Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium
and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination.
NOISE
➔ “Unwanted data” that corrupts the data.
➔ Four types of noise:-
◆ Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire, which
creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
◆ Induced noise comes from sources such as motors.
◆ Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other.
◆ Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short time)
that comes from power lines,lightning, and so on.
DATA RATE LIMITS
➔ How fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel.

➔ Depends on three factors,

◆ The bandwidth available
◆ The level(strength) of the signal
◆ The quality of the signal (the level of noise)
➔ formulas to calculate the data rate:
◆ Nyquist - noiseless channel
◆ Shannon - noisy channel.
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Rate
For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate.

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal

with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
➔ To determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:

High SNR means less corrupted by noise

Low SNR means more corrupted by noise

Example:shannon capacity
1) We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line. A
telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz assigned for data
communications. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel
the capacity is calculated as

2) The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that SNRdB = 36

and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be
calculated as
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
➔ how good is it?

➔ Parameters are:
◆ Bandwidth- the max.capacity at which a network can transmit data
◆ Throughput-how much data we can actually send through a network
◆ Delay- the time that data takes to transfer across the network
◆ Jitter - a problem if different packets of data encounter different delays
BANDWIDTH
➔ can be used in two different contexts with two different measuring values:
❖ bandwidth in hertz(analog)
➢ the range of frequencies occupied by a signal , is measured in
hertz (Hz)
➢ difference between the upper and lower frequencies of a signal

Example:if a periodic signal is composed of 100,300,500 and 900 hz. What is the
bandwidth?

❖ bandwidth in bits per second(digital)

➢ amount of data transmitted in unit time,measured in bits per sec
➢ No.of bits per sec a channel or a network can transmit
THROUGHPUT
➔ a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.

Bandwidth vs Throughput

Bandwidth refers to the maximum amount of data that could, theoretically,

travel from one point in the network to another in a given time.

Throughput refers to the actual amount of data transmitted and processed

throughout the network.
Latency or delay
➔ how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.
➔ We can say that latency is made of four components:
◆ Propagation time
◆ Transmission time
◆ Queuing time
◆ Processing delay
Propagation Time :The time required for a bit to travel from the source to the

destination.

Transmission Time: time required for transmission of a message

- a time between the first bit leaving the sender and the last bit arriving at the receiver
- depends on the size of the message and the bandwidth of the channel.

Queuing Time :the time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the
message before it can be processed.

When there is heavy traffic on the network, the queuing time increases. An intermediate
device, such as a router, queues the arrived messages and processes them one by one

Processing Delay: the time for which the processing of a particular packet takes place
JITTER
A problem if different packets of data encounter different delays and the
application using the data at the receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video
data, for example).
Digital to Digital conversion
“digital data is converted into digital signal”
The digital-to-digital encoding can be done by

1. Line coding Schemes

a. Unipolar
b. Polar
c. Bipolar
2. Block Coding
3. Scrambling
1. Line of Coding
● Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital data) into a sequence of signals that
denote the 1’s and 0’s.
● The sender side encrypts digital data into digital signals, while the
receiving side decodes the digital signal to regenerate the digital
data.
1.Unipolar scheme
● In this scheme, all the signal levels are either above or below the axis.
● only one polarity is used i.e., bit 1 is used to represent positive voltage
and bit 0 is used to represent zero voltage or idle line.
● NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of this code.
● Signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit thus it is called NRZ
● example: Data = 10110.
2. Polar scheme
● In polar encoding two levels of voltage amplitude is used. -ie, the voltages
are on the both sides of the axis.
● The polar encoding is of four types.
a. Polar - NRZ
■ NZR - Level (NRZ-L)
■ NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I)
b. Return to zero (RZ)
c. Manchester
d. Differential Manchester
a.Polar - NRZ
● These are somewhat similar to unipolar NRZ scheme but here uses two
levels of amplitude (voltages).
● positive voltage is represented by bit 1 and negative voltage is
represented by bit 0
● Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ) has two types: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

● NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol and negative for
the other
● NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in polarity
determines the value of a symbol.
E.g. a “1” symbol inverts the polarity a “0” does not.
b. Polar-Return to zero (RZ)

● which uses three values positive, negative, and zero.

● In this scheme signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit.
● Either from high to zero or from low to zero.

0- low to zero
1- high to zero
c.Polar - Biphase:
Manchester and Differential Manchester

● Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-L and RZ schemes.

○ Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to low or low
to high. Uses only two voltage levels.

● Differential Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-I and RZ

schemes.
○ Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the level at the
beginning of the symbol is determined by the symbol value. One symbol
causes a level change the other does not.
3. Bipolar
● In this scheme there are three voltage levels positive, negative, and zero.
● The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level
for the other element alternates between positive and negative.
● Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (Bipolar AMI) – A neutral zero voltage
represents binary 0. Binary 1’s are represented by alternating positive and
negative voltages.
● Pseudoternary – reverse of AMI.

Bit 1 is encoded as a zero voltage and the bit 0 is encoded as alternating

positive and negative voltages i.e., opposite of AMI scheme.
2. Block Coding
● adding extra bits to data - used for error detection and Synchronization also
requires redundancy
● In general, block coding changes a block of m bits into a block of n bits,
where n is larger than m.
● Block coding is referred to as an mB/nB encoding technique.
● Block coding normally involves three steps:
● Division:A sequence of bits is divided into groups of m bits.
● Substitution:The heart of block coding , we substitute an m-bit group for
an n-bit group.
● Combination:the n-bit groups are combined together to form a stream.
The new stream has more bits than the original bits.
3. Scrambling
Two common scrambling techniques are B8ZS and HDB3.
➔ B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with
000VB0VB.
◆ V stands for violation,
● is a non-zero voltage which means the signal has
the same polarity as the previous non-zero
voltage. Thus it is a violation of the general AMI
technique.
◆ B stands for bipolar,i.e., opposite polarity from the
previous non-zero voltage
Data = 100000000
B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with 000VB0VB.
➔ HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V or
B00V depending on the number of nonzero pulses
after the last substitution.
◆ If no.of non zero pulses is even the substitution
is B00V to make total no.of non zero pulse even.
◆ if no.of non zero pulses is odd the substitution
is 000V to make total no.of non zero pulses even.
Data = 1100001000000000
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
“to change an analog signal to digital data”
● two techniques,
1. pulse code modulation

1. The analog signal is sampled.

2. The sampled signal is quantized.

3. The quantized values are encoded as streams of bits.

2. delta modulation.
1.Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
technique to change an analog signal to digital data (digitization)
Sampling
● sometimes referred to as pulse amplitude modulation (PAM).
● The analog signal is sampled every Ts sec, where Ts is the sample interval or period.
● The inverse of the sampling interval is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.

fs = 1/Ts

There are three sampling methods-ideal, natural, and flat-top

1. Ideal:
a. an instantaneous or impulse at each sampling instant
2. Natural:
a. a pulse of short width with varying amplitude
b. the top of each pulse in the sampled signal retains the shape of the input signal during
pulse interval.
3. Flattop -
a. sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude value
b. The top of each pulse in the sampled signal remain constant and is equal to the
instantaneous value of the input signal at the start of the samples
Quantization
Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a finite set of
levels, which means converting a continuous-amplitude sample into a discrete-time
signal.
Sampling results in a series of pulses of varying amplitude values ranging
between two limits: a min and a max.

◼ We need to map the infinite amplitude values onto a finite set of known values.

◼ This is achieved by dividing the distance between min and max into L zones,
each of height d

d= (max - min)/L
2. Delta Modulation
● Reduce complexity of PCM.
● This scheme finds only the change from the previous sample, if the pulse at
time tn+1 is higher in amplitude value than the pulse at time tn , then a
single bit, say a “1”, is used to indicate the positive value.
● If the pulse is lower in value, resulting in a negative value, a “0” is used.

◼ This scheme works well for small changes in signal values between samples.
Digital-To-Analog Conversion: ASK, FSK, PSK

● Digital-to-analog conversion or modulation

● Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the
characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in digital data.
 NOTE:
● Bit rate, N, the number of bits transmitted per second
Bit Rate =Baud Rate × Number of Bits per Baud
● Baud rate is the number of signal elements per second (signal changes)
Baud Rate = Bit Rate / Number of Bits per Baud
In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud rate is less than or equal to
the bit rate.
S=Nx1/r bauds
Where S:signal elements are sent per second
r is the number of data bits per signal element.
Example:
1. An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent
per second, find the bit rate.
Solution:In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
● the amplitude/strength of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1
or 0
● Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes
● A bit duration is the period of time that defines one bit
● The peak amplitude is constant and its value depends on the bit(0/1)
Frequency Shift Keying(FSK)

● Frequency of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 0r 0

● Frequency of the signal during each bit duration is constant and its value
depends on the bit (1/0)
● Both peak amplitude and phase remains constant
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
● Phase of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 0r 0
● maximum bit rate in PSK is greater than ASK
● PSK is much more robust than ASK as it is not that vulnerable to noise, which
changes amplitude of the signal.