BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

BODY FLUIDS
-- All the organisms need energy for survival and to obtain it nutrients and oxygen is circulated
throughout the body along with other substances.
-- Hence, there is need of an efficient circulatory system to ensure movement of substances to
and from the cells.
-- Simple organisms circulate substances with the help of water, e.g., sponges and
coelentrates.
-- More complex organisms use special fluids within their bodies to transport such materials.
Blood is the most commonly used body fluid by most of the higher organisms including humans
for this purpose. Another body fluid, lymph, also helps in the transport of certain substances. In
this chapter, you will learn about the composition and properties of blood and lymph (tissue
fluid) and the mechanism of circulation of blood is also explained herein.

FUNCTIONS OF CIRCULATORY
1 Transport Oxygen
2 Transport CO2
3 Transport waste products of metabolism
4 Transport hormones
5 Regulation of body temperature
6 Protection against invasion or infections
BLOOD
-- Blood is a fluid connective tissue
which is mesodermal in origin.
-- It is an opaque red coloured fluid
alkaline in nature and salty in taste.
-- Its specific gravity is 1.050 - 1.060.
-- The volume of blood in a healthy man
is about 5 to 6 litres (about 6 to 10% of
the total weight of the body).
-- Blood contains two main components,
the fluid part is the plasma and the solid
part is the corpuscles.
-- Oxygenated Blood is bright red and
Deoxygenated is purplish in colour
-- Blood is a special connective tissue
consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and
formed elements.
  It is a straw-coloured viscous fluid which
constitutes nearly 55% of the blood. y
 Water in blood plasma is 90-92%.
 Proteins in blood plasma are 6-8%.
Major Classes of Plasma Proteins
 Fibrinogens -- Globulins -- Albumins
 Mineral Ions in Blood Plasma y Na+, Ca++,

Plasma Mg++, HCO3 –, Cl–, CO4 –

 Organic Compounds in Blood Plasma
Glucose, amino acids, lipids, hormones,
vitamins, etc.
 Serum Blood plasma without coagulation
factors is known as serum.
 Dissolved gases such as O2 , CO2 AND N2
 Excretary substances , enzymes and
hormones (as regulatory substances are
present )
 • Clotting of the blood at the site
of internal or external injury –
fibrinogens.
FUNCTION • Defence mechanism of the body
S OF – globulins.
• Osmotic balance of body fluids –
PLASMA albumins
PROTEINS • : Other proteins which include
the coagulation factors are
found in an inactive form in the
blood plasma.
 • Formed elements constitute
about 45% of the blood.
• Cellular elements found
suspended in plasma.
FORMED
Three kinds of formed elements
ELEMENTS are:
: BLOOD ○ Erythrocytes or Red Blood
CORPUSCL Corpuscles (RBCs)
ES ○ Leucocytes or White Blood
Corpuscles (WBCs)
○ Thrombocytes or Platelets
ERYTHROCYTES : RBCs
• They are the most abundant of all the cells of blood.
• They are formed in the red bone marrow.
• Their number is about 4.5 - 5.5 million/mm3 of blood.
• Their life span is about 120 days.
• Worn out RBCs are destroyed in the spleen so, it is called graveyard of RBCs.
• They are biconcave and disc-like with a diameter of 7-8 mm.
• They do not have nucleus, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum.
• The entire volume of the cell is filled with haemoglobin, a red-coloured iron-
containing pigment (respiratory pigment).
• A healthy adult person has about 12-16 g of haemoglobin in every 100 ml of
blood.
• These contain the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, it is helpful in the transportation
of carbon dioxide.
Leucocytes (WBCs)
• They are large and nucleated blood corpuscles.
• The nucleus may be spherical in shape or two to many lobed.
• These are relatively lesser in number than RBCs.
• They are colourless due to the absence of any pigment.
• Their number is about 6000-8000 mm–3.
• These are broadly classified into granulocytes and agranulocytes on the
basis of presence or absence of granules in their cytoplasm.
• Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils are different types of granulocytes,
while lymphocytes and monocytes are the agranulocytes.
• Neutrophils are the most abundant cells (60-65 per cent) of the total WBCs
and basophils are the least (0.5-1 per cent) among them. Neutrophils and
monocytes (6-8 per cent) are phagocytic cells which destroy foreign
organisms entering the body. Basophils secrete histamine, serotonin,
heparin, etc., and are involved in inflammatory reactions. Eosinophils (2-3
per cent) resist infections and are alsoassociated with allergic reactions.
Lymphocytes (20-25 per cent) are of two major types – ‘B’ and ‘T’ forms.
Both B and T lymphocytes are responsible for immune responses of the body.
Granulocyt
 These are the es
cells with • ○ Basophils : Take dark stain
 ○ Granular cytoplasm with basic dyes. Nucleus is
two to three lobed. These
○ Polymorphic nucleus secrete heparin
(anticoagulant). Thus, keep
 Granulocytes are further of three the blood in fluid state.
types: These also secrete histamine
which widens blood vessels
 ○ Neutrophils Take lighter stain and increase flow of blood to
with acidic and basic dyes. These the injured tissues.
are the most abundant cells of Histamine makes the blood
total WBCs (60-65 per cent). The capillaries more permeable
nucleus is multi-lobed. These lack for neutrophils and clotting
proteins at the site of injury.
lysosomes hence, dye during These also secrete serotonin
phagocytosis. which is a vasoconstrictor
 ○ Eosinophils Take dark stain with after blood clot formation at
the injured tissue.
acidic dyes. Rare in blood.Nucleus Histamine, serotonin,
is bilobed. Common in mucus heparin, etc., are involved in
membrane of respiratory, inflammatory reaction.
digestive, lower urinary tract.
These secrete chemicals to digest
or destroy large worms like
hookworm, tapeworm, etc., as
these cannot be killed by
Agranulocytes
• These are the cells with
• ○ No granules in the cytoplasm
• ○ Large circular or kidney shaped nucleus y
• Agranulocytes are further of two types:
• ○ Monocytes
• Nucleus is kidney or bean shaped.
• These are largest in number and size among all WBCs.
• These are phagocytic in nature.
• Monocytes are very active WBCs just like neutrophils.
• ○ Lymphocytes
• The nucleus is spherical in shape.
• These are non-phagocytic in nature and secrete antibodies to destroy the
infectious agents.
• These are longest lived cells among all WBCs. B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes
are two major types which are responsible for immune response of the body. Note:
B lymphocytes mature in bone marrow while T lymphocytes mature in thymus
gland.
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
• They are the cells fragments formed by megakaryocytes in the red bone
marrow.
• Enucleated, biconvex discoid (lens-shaped) structures which are
maximum 2-3 µm in diameter.
• These have dense tubular system (synonymous to ER), mitochondria,
autophagosomes, endosomes, lysosomes and golgi bodies. y Their
number ranges between 1,50,000 to 3,50,000 per micro litre of blood.
• These are involved mainly in thrombosis, haemostasis and
inflammation.
• They release substances that are concerned with the clotting of blood.
• Their lifespan ranges from 8 to 12 days. y Most of the worn out platelets
are removed from circulation by the macrophages in the liver and spleen.
• Platelets are found only in mammals.
BLOOD GROUPS
• Grouping of blood is done on the basis of antigens and Rh factors.
• In both the cases, the criterion is the presence or absence of certain antigens on
the surface of erythrocytes (RBCs).
ABO Blood Grouping
• This blood grouping is called ABO-called grouping and was discovered by
Landsteiner.
• The presence or absence of antigen A and/or antigen B on the surface of RBCs,
• Plasma of different individuals has one and/ or two different antibodies, produced
in response to the antigens.
• Blood groups are very important for consideration during blood transfusion.
• Agglutination (coagulation) of blood – Transfusion of mismatched blood group
leads to coagulation of blood cells which is fatal for an individual.
• Universal donors – Blood group ‘O’ individuals are called universal donors can
donate blood to persons of any blood group; this is because blood of O-group does
not have any antigen to react with the antibodies of the recipient.
• Universal acceptors – Person with AB blood group is called universal acceptor as it
can take blood of any group (A, B, AB and O); this is because, there is no antibody
in his blood group, to react with the antigen(s) of the donor.
  Rh-antigen is a protein discovered in
Rhesus monkeys.
 Rh-antigen is also present on the surface
of RBCs of human beings.
 Rh-positive individuals – About 80% of
Rh- human individuals have Rh-antigen so
they are called Rh-positive.
Grouping  Rh-negative individuals – About 20% of
human individuals who lack this antigen,
are called Rhnegative.
 If Rh positive blood is transfused into an
Rh-negative individual, specific anti-
Rhantibodies are formed in the blood of
the receipient.
Role of Rh During
Pregnancy
Case I :
• When Rh negative mother bears Rh negative foetus then there is no complication
during pregnancy as both mother and foetus do not bear Rh factor.
Case II
• When Rh-negative woman bears an Rh-positive foetus, for the first time normally
there are no complications and the pregnancy remians healthy and normal. At the
time of delivery of the first child, the foetal blood comes in contact with the mother’s
blood and anti-Rh-antibodies are formed by the mother’s blood.
• These antibodies (anti-Rh anti-bodies)remain in the blood of mother for a long
period.
• During second pregnancy if the foetus is Rhpositive then the anti-Rh antibodies from
the mother’s blood enter the foetal circulation and destroy its RBCs. This results in
jaundice and severe anaemia in the new born. Such condition is described as
erythroblastosis fetalis.
• So during second pregnancy of Rh negative mother with Rh positive foetus, the
chances of normal and healthy pregnancy are less. In most of such cases the foetus
dies before full development.
• In subsequent pregnancies where mother is Rh negative and father is Rh positive
extensive medication is required from the very begining of the pregnancy to save the
foetus.
COAGUALTION OF BLOOD
• When an injury occurs, there is
bleeding from the wound for
sometimes, but it soon stops.
• Blood exhibits a mechanism called
blood coagulation or clotting to
prevent excess loss of blood from
the body
• A clot or coagulum is formed which
consists of a network of fibres
called fibrin in which the dead and
damaged corpuscles are trapped.
• When the blood comes out of an
injured blood vessel, the platelets
or thrombocytes clump together,
break and release platelet factors.
• The prothrombinase initiates the
conversion of prothrombin of the
plasma into thrombin.
• Thrombin catalyses the conversion
of fibrinogen into fibrin, which
forms a mesh, network. y Ca++ ions
are necessary for both the above
BLOOD CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
 Circulatory system was first demonstrated and discovered by William Harvey.
 All vertebrates and the higher invertebrates possess the blood circulatory system (blood
vascular system).
Types of Circulatory System
 Open Circulatory System
 Closed Circulatory System
Open Circulatory System
 This type of circulatory system is found in Molluscs (except Cephalopods), Arthropods and
Tunicates.
 Blood (haemolymph) flows freely through the body cavity (haemocoel) and channels (lacunae
and sinuses) in the tissues (blood does not remain confined to the blood vessels).
 In insects the tissues are in direct contact with the blood (haemolymph). It circulates in the
whole body due to the contraction of heart muscles.
 In Prawns only oxygenated blood flows into some arteries which open into lacunae and
sinuses. These spaces are called haemocoel.
 The sinuses and tissues are directly involved in the exchange of respiratory gases, nutrients
and metabolic wastes.
 The deoxygenated blood passes through the gills for oxygenation. This oxygenated blood is
returned from the gills to a sinus near the heart.
 The pressure of blood in this system is always low.
Closed Circulatory System
-- This type of circulatory is found in all vertebrates, Echinoderms,
Cephalopods of Molluscs and Annelids.
-- Blood is pumped by the heart and it flows through the blood vessels-
arteries, veins and blood capillaries.
-- There is no direct communication of blood with body organs or any open
space or body cavity. Blood is pumped by heart into the arteries and
returns back to heart via veins.
-- This system accelerates the speed of blood flow as the blood is pumped
by the heart, thus increases the efficiency of circulation.
-- Blood flows far more rapidly in closed blood vessels; takes much shorter
time to circulate and then returns to the heart.
--It quickens the supply and removal of material to and from the tissues
by the blood itself through blood capillaries (highly thin walled blood
vessels)
BLOOD VESSELS
Three types of blood vessels are present in animals viz. arteries, veins, and capillaries .
Arteries
• They are thick-walled vessels with elastic and muscular walls.
• Arteries are deeply seated in the body
• Their walls are made up of three concentric layers-
• ○ Tunica externa (outer)
• ○ Tunica media (middle)
• ○ Tunica interna (inner most) y Arterial walls are made up of smooth muscles or
involuntary muscles.
• The flow of blood in the arteries is regulated by the contraction and relaxation of
smooth muscles which alter the diameter of arteries.
• They do not have valves and are non-collapsible. Blood flows with jerk and with great
pressure in arteries.
• Arteries divide into arterioles (inside the tissues) which then branch to form capillaries,
these capillaries then unite to form venules and venules unite to form veins.
• Arteries carry the blood away from heart.
• Arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary arteries which carry deoxygenated
blood (from right ventricle to lungs).
Veins
 Their walls are very thin. Though all the three layers i.e., tunica externa, tunica media,
tunica interna are present.
 Veins are generally superficial in distribution and bluish in colour.
 The smooth muscles and elastic connective tissues in the veins are poorly developed. Their
walls are non-elastic, thin, fibrous and collapsible.
 They have valves (mostly semilunar valves) which allow the flow of blood only in one
directiontowards the heart. The pressure of blood in veins is less so valves are present.
 The flow of blood is smooth in veins.
 All the veins carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary veins (which carry oxygenated
blood from lungs to left auricle)

Capillaries
 They are extremely fine, thin blood vessels which 5 to 10 µm in diameter.
 The walls of these vessels are made up of a single layer of endothelial cells only. There are
no muscles and elastic fibres in these vessels. These form connection between arteries and
veins.
 The capillaries are highly permeable to substances. Their primary function is exchange of
materials between blood and the tissues.
 Substances which easily diffuse through capillaries are water, oxygen and carbon dioxide,
glucose, urea, uric acid, lactic acid, creatinine, etc. Capillaries are not permeable to
macromolecules like proteins.