LEC09: ETHERNET SWITCHING

INTRODUCTION
LAN technologies

The two most prominent LAN technologies in use today are:

1. Ethernet: uses wired communications, including twisted-pair,

fiber-optic links, and coaxial cables. It supports bandwidths of
up to 100 Gbps, which explains its popularity.

2. wireless LANs (WLANs): A network that is similar to a LAN but

that wirelessly connects users and devices in a small geographic
area instead of using a wired connection.
A WLAN uses radio waves to transmit data between wireless
devices.
Ethernet Frames
Ethernet Encapsulation
• Ethernet operates in the data link layer and the physical
layer.
• It is a family of networking technologies defined in the IEEE
802.2 and 802.3 standards.
• Ethernet standards define both Layer 2 protocols and Layer
1 technologies.
Ethernet Frames
Data Link Sublayers
The 802 LAN/MAN standards, including Ethernet, use two separate
sublayers of the data link layer to operate:
LLC Sublayer: This (IEEE 802.2) sublayer communicates between the
networking software at the upper layers and the device hardware at the
lower layers. It Places information in the frame to identify which network
layer protocol is used for the frame. This information allows multiple Layer
3 protocols, such as IPv4 and IPv6, to use the same network interface and
media.
MAC Sublayer: This sublayer (specified in IEEE 802.3, 802.11, and
802.15), which is implemented in hardware, is responsible for data
encapsulation and media access control. It provides data link layer
addressing and is integrated with various physical layer technologies.
Ethernet Frames
MAC Sublayer
The MAC sublayer is responsible for data encapsulation and accessing the
media.

Data Encapsulation
IEEE 802.3 data encapsulation includes the following:
1. Ethernet frame - This is the internal structure of the Ethernet frame.
2. Ethernet Addressing - The Ethernet frame includes both a source and
destination MAC address to deliver the Ethernet frame from Ethernet
NIC to Ethernet NIC on the same LAN.
3. Ethernet Error detection - The Ethernet frame includes a frame check
sequence (FCS) trailer used for error detection.
Ethernet Frames
MAC Sublayer
Media Access
• The IEEE 802.3 MAC sublayer includes the specifications for different
Ethernet communications standards over various types of media including
copper and fiber.
• Legacy Ethernet using a bus topology or hubs, is a shared, half-duplex
medium. Ethernet over a half-duplex medium uses a contention-based
access method, carrier sense multiple access/collision detection
(CSMA/CD) to ensure that only one device is transmitting at a time.
CSMA/CD allows multiple devices to share the same half-duplex medium
and detects a collision when more than one device attempts to transmit
simultaneously. It also provides a back-off algorithm for retransmission.
• Ethernet LANs of today use switches that operate in full-duplex. Full-
duplex communications with Ethernet switches do not require access
control through CSMA/CD.
Ethernet Frames
Ethernet Frame Fields
• The minimum Ethernet frame size is 64 bytes and the maximum is 1518 bytes.
The preamble field is not included when describing the size of the frame.
• Any frame less than 64 bytes in length is considered a “collision fragment” or
“runt frame” and is automatically discarded. Frames with more than 1500
bytes of data are considered “jumbo” or “baby giant frames”.
• If the size of a transmitted frame is less than the minimum, or greater than the
maximum, the receiving device drops the frame. Dropped frames are likely to
be the result of collisions or other unwanted signals. They are considered
invalid. Jumbo frames are usually supported by most Fast Ethernet and Gigabit
Ethernet switches and NICs.
Ethernet MAC Addresses
MAC Address and Hexadecimal

• An Ethernet MAC address consists of a 48-bit binary value, expressed

using 12 hexadecimal values.
• Given that 8 bits (one byte) is a common binary grouping, binary 00000000
to 11111111 can be represented in hexadecimal as the range 00 to FF,
• When using hexadecimal, leading zeroes are always displayed to complete
the 8-bit representation. For example, the binary value 00001010 is
represented in hexadecimal as 0A.
• Hexadecimal numbers are often represented by the value preceded
by 0x (e.g., 0x73) to distinguish between decimal and hexadecimal values
in documentation.
• Hexadecimal may also be represented by a subscript 16, or the hex number
followed by an H (e.g., 73H).
Ethernet MAC Addresses
Ethernet MAC Address
• In an Ethernet LAN, every network device is connected to the same,
shared media. MAC addressing provides a method for device
identification at the data link layer of the OSI model.
• An Ethernet MAC address is a 48-bit address expressed using 12
hexadecimal digits. Because a byte equals 8 bits, we can also say that a
MAC address is 6 bytes in length.
• All MAC addresses must be unique to the Ethernet device or Ethernet
interface. To ensure this, all vendors that sell Ethernet devices must register
with the IEEE to obtain a unique 6 hexadecimal (i.e., 24-bit or 3-byte) code
called the organizationally unique identifier (OUI).
• An Ethernet MAC address consists of a 6 hexadecimal vendor OUI code
followed by a 6 hexadecimal vendor-assigned value.
 Ethernet MAC Addresses
Frame Processing
• When a device is forwarding a message to an Ethernet network, the Ethernet
header include a Source MAC address and a Destination MAC address.
• When a NIC receives an Ethernet frame, it examines the destination MAC
address to see if it matches the physical MAC address that is stored in
RAM. If there is no match, the device discards the frame. If there is a match, it
passes the frame up the OSI layers, where the de-encapsulation process
takes place.
• Note: Ethernet NICs will also accept frames if the destination MAC
address is a broadcast or a multicast group of which the host is a
member.
• Any device that is the source or destination of an Ethernet frame, will have an
Ethernet NIC and therefore, a MAC address. This includes workstations,
servers, printers, mobile devices, and routers.
 Ethernet MAC Addresses
Unicast MAC Address
• In Ethernet, different MAC addresses are used for Layer 2 unicast,
broadcast, and multicast communications.
• A unicast MAC address is the unique address that is used when a frame
is sent from a single transmitting device to a single destination device.
• The process that a source host uses to determine the destination MAC address
associated with an IPv4 address is known as Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP).
• The process that a source host uses to determine the destination MAC address
associated with an IPv6 address is known as Neighbor Discovery (ND).
Note: The source MAC address must always be a unicast.
Ethernet MAC Addresses
Broadcast MAC Address
• An Ethernet broadcast frame is received and processed by every
device on the Ethernet LAN.
• The features of an Ethernet broadcast are as follows:
• It has a destination MAC address of FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF in hexadecimal
(48 ones in binary).
• It is flooded out all Ethernet switch ports except the incoming port. It is not
forwarded by a router.
• If the encapsulated data is an IPv4 broadcast packet, this means the
packet contains a destination IPv4 address that has all ones (1s) in the host
portion. This numbering in the address means that all hosts on that local
network (broadcast domain) will receive and process the packet.
 Ethernet MAC Addresses: Multicast MAC Address
• An Ethernet multicast frame is received and processed by a group of
devices that belong to the same multicast group.
• There is a destination MAC address of 01-00-5E when the encapsulated data
is an IPv4 multicast packet and a destination MAC address of 33-33 when the
encapsulated data is an IPv6 multicast packet.
• There are other reserved multicast destination MAC addresses for when
the encapsulated data is not IP, such as Spanning Tree Protocol (STP).
• It is flooded out all Ethernet switch ports except the incoming port, unless the
switch is configured for multicast snooping. It is not forwarded by a router,
unless the router is configured to route multicast packets.
• Because multicast addresses represent a group of addresses (sometimes called a
host group), they can only be used as the destination of a packet. The source will
always be a unicast address.
• As with the unicast and broadcast addresses, the multicast IP address
requires a corresponding multicast MAC address.
The MAC Address Table
Switch Fundamentals
• A Layer 2 Ethernet switch uses Layer 2 MAC addresses to make
forwarding decisions. It is completely unaware of the data (protocol) being
carried in the data portion of the frame, such as an IPv4 packet, an ARP
message, or an IPv6 ND packet. The switch makes its forwarding decisions
based solely on the Layer 2 Ethernet MAC addresses.
• An Ethernet switch examines its MAC address table to make a forwarding
decision for each frame, unlike legacy Ethernet hubs that repeat bits
out all ports except the incoming port.
• When a switch is turned on, the MAC address table is empty

• Note: The MAC address table is sometimes referred to as a content

addressable memory (CAM) table.
The MAC Address Table
Switch Learning and Forwarding
Examine the Source MAC Address (Learn)
Every frame that enters a switch is checked for new information to learn. It
does this by examining the source MAC address of the frame and the port
number where the frame entered the switch. If the source MAC address does
not exist, it is added to the table along with the incoming port number. If the
source MAC address does exist, the switch updates the refresh timer for that
entry. By default, most Ethernet switches keep an entry in the table for 5
minutes.

Note: If the source MAC address does exist in the table but on a different
port, the switch treats this as a new entry. The entry is replaced using the
same MAC address but with the more current port number.
The MAC Address Table
Switch Learning and Forwarding (Contd.)
Find the Destination MAC Address (Forward)
If the destination MAC address is a unicast address, the switch will look for a
match between the destination MAC address of the frame and an entry in its
MAC address table. If the destination MAC address is in the table, it will
forward the frame out the specified port. If the destination MAC address is
not in the table, the switch will forward the frame out all ports except the
incoming port. This is called an unknown unicast.

Note: If the destination MAC address is a broadcast or a multicast, the frame

is also flooded out all ports except the incoming port.
The MAC Address Table
Filtering Frames
As a switch receives frames from different devices, it is able to populate its
MAC address table by examining the source MAC address of every frame.
When the MAC address table of the switch contains the destination MAC
address, it is able to filter the frame and forward out a single port.
 Switch Speeds and Forwarding Methods
Frame Forwarding Methods on Cisco Switches
Switches use one of the following forwarding methods for switching data
between network ports:
• Store-and-forward switching - This frame forwarding method receives the
entire frame and computes the CRC. If the CRC is valid, the switch looks up the
destination address, which determines the outgoing interface. Then the frame is
forwarded out of the correct port.
• Cut-through switching - This frame forwarding method forwards the frame
before it is entirely received. At a minimum, the destination address of the
frame must be read before the frame can be forwarded.

• A big advantage of store-and-forward switching is that it determines if a frame

has errors before propagating the frame. When an error is detected in a frame,
the switch discards the frame. Discarding frames with errors reduces the
amount of bandwidth consumed by corrupt data.
• Store-and-forward switching is required for quality of service (QoS) analysis on
converged networks where frame classification for traffic prioritization is
necessary. For example, voice over IP (VoIP) data streams need to have priority
over web-browsing traffic.
Switch Speeds and Forwarding Methods
Cut-Through Switching
In cut-through switching, the switch acts upon the data as soon as it is
received, even if the transmission is not complete. The switch buffers just
enough of the frame to read the destination MAC address so that it can
determine to which port it should forward out the data. The switch does not
perform any error checking on the frame.
There are two variants of cut-through switching:
• Fast-forward switching - Offers the lowest level of latency by
immediately forwarding a packet after reading the destination address.
Because fast-forward switching starts forwarding before the entire
packet has been received, there may be times when packets are relayed
with errors. The destination NIC discards the faulty packet upon
receipt. Fast-forward switching is the typical cut-through method of
switching.
• Fragment-free switching - A compromise between the high latency
and high integrity of store-and-forward switching and the low latency
and reduced integrity of fast-forward switching, the switch stores and
performs an error check on the first 64 bytes of the frame before
forwarding. Because most network errors and collisions occur during
the first 64 bytes, this ensures that a collision has not occurred before
forwarding the frame.
Switch Speeds and Forwarding Methods
Memory Buffering on Switches
An Ethernet switch may use a buffering technique to store frames before
forwarding them or when the destination port is busy because of congestion.

Method Description

•Frames are stored in queues that are linked to specific incoming and outgoing
ports.
•A frame is transmitted to the outgoing port only when all the frames ahead in the
Port-based queue have been successfully transmitted.
memory •It is possible for a single frame to delay the transmission of all the frames in
memory because of a busy destination port.
•This delay occurs even if the other frames could be transmitted to open destination
ports.

•Deposits all frames into a common memory buffer shared by all switch ports and
the amount of buffer memory required by a port is dynamically allocated.
Shared
•The frames in the buffer are dynamically linked to the destination port enabling a
memory
packet to be received on one port and then transmitted on another port, without
moving it to a different queue.
• Shared memory buffering also results in larger frames that can be
transmitted with fewer dropped frames. This is important with asymmetric
switching which allows for different data rates on different ports.
Therefore, more bandwidth can be dedicated to certain ports (e.g., server
port).
Switch Speeds and Forwarding Methods
Duplex and Speed Settings
Two of the most basic settings on a switch are the bandwidth (“speed”)
and duplex settings for each individual switch port. It is critical that the
duplex and bandwidth settings match between the switch port and the
connected devices.

There are two types of duplex settings used for communications on an

Ethernet network:
• Full-duplex - Both ends of the connection can send and receive
simultaneously.
• Half-duplex - Only one end of the connection can send at a time.

Autonegotiation is an optional function found on most Ethernet switches

and NICs. It enables two devices to automatically negotiate the best speed
and duplex capabilities.

Note: Gigabit Ethernet ports only operate in full-duplex.

Switch Speeds and Forwarding Methods
Duplex and Speed Settings
• Duplex mismatch is one of the most common causes of performance issues
on 10/100 Mbps Ethernet links. It occurs when one port on the link
operates at half-duplex while the other port operates at full-duplex.
• This can occur when one or both ports on a link are reset, and the
autonegotiation process does not result in both link partners having the
same configuration.
• It also can occur when users reconfigure one side of a link and forget to
reconfigure the other. Both sides of a link should have
autonegotiation on, or both sides should have it off. Best practice is
to configure both Ethernet switch ports as full-duplex.
Switch Speeds and Forwarding Methods
Auto-MDIX
Connections between devices once required the use of either a crossover or
straight-through cable. The type of cable required depended on the type
of interconnecting devices.
Note: A direct connection between a router and a host requires a cross-over
connection.

• Most switch devices now support the automatic medium-dependent

interface crossover (auto-MDIX) feature. When enabled, the switch
automatically detects the type of cable attached to the port and configures
the interfaces accordingly.
• The auto-MDIX feature is enabled by default on switches running
Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SE or later. However, the feature could be
disabled. For this reason, you should always use the correct cable type and
not rely on the auto-MDIX feature.
• Auto-MDIX can be re-enabled using the mdix auto interface configuration
command.
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