COORDINATION – Chp -

15
 Control and
Coordination in Humans
• The control and coordination in
human beings take place
through nervous system and
hormonal system which is called
endocrine system.
 Human Nervous
System
• Nervous system coordinates the
activities of our body. It controls all
our behaviour, thinking and actions.
It is through nervous system only
that all other systems of our body
work. It passes information from one
internal system to another.
Human Nervous
System
Nervous coordination
Central nervous syst
•em
Central nervous system consists of brain and
spinal cord. It is responsible for the control
and coordination of the activities of nervous
system.
• The function of a central nervous system is to
respond to the messages it receives.
• It directs the motor neurons that are
connected to the part of the body which will
respond to the stimulus.
• The central nervous system collects
information from all the receptors in our
body.
Central nervous syst
•em
The central nervous system consists
of the brain and spinal cord
• Both are surrounded by protective
membranes called the meninges,
• both float in a crystal-clear
cerebrospinal fluid
• The brain is encased in a bony
vault, the neurocranium, while the
cylindrical and elongated spinal
cord lies in the vertebral canal,
which is formed by successive
vertebrae connected by dense
ligaments
 Brain

• The brain weighs about 1,500 grams (3 pounds)

and constitutes about 2 percent of total body
weight
• It consists of three major divisions:
• (1) the massive paired hemispheres of the
cerebrum,
• (2) the brainstem, consisting of the thalamus,
hypothalamus, epithalamus, subthalamus,
midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata,
• (3) the cerebellum
 Cerebrum
• The cerebrum, is the largest, uppermost portion of
the brain.
• It is involved with sensory integration, control of
voluntary movement, and higher intellectual
functions, such as speech and abstract thought
• The outer layer of the duplicate cerebral hemispheres
is composed of a convoluted (wrinkled) outer layer
of gray matter, called the cerebral cortex. Beneath
the cerebral cortex is an inner core of white matter
• The cerebral hemispheres are partially separated
from each other by a deep groove called the
longitudinal fissure.
 Cerebrum
• At the base of the longitudinal fissure lies a thick
band of white matter called the corpus callosum.
The corpus callosum provides a communication
link between corresponding regions of the
cerebral hemispheres.
• Each cerebral hemisphere supplies motor function
to the opposite, or contralateral, side of the body
from which it receives sensory input
• Each hemisphere also receives impulses
conveying the senses of touch and vision, largely
from the contralateral half of the body, while
auditory input comes from both sides
•
Spinal cord
The spinal cord is an elongated cylindrical structure,
about 45 cm (18 inches) long, that extends from the
medulla oblongata to a level between the first and
second lumbar vertebrae of the backbone.
• The spinal cord is composed of long tracts of
myelinated nerve fibres (known as white matter)
arranged around the periphery of a symmetrical
butterfly-shaped cellular matrix of gray matter
• The gray matter contains cell bodies, unmyelinated
motor neuron fibres, and interneurons connecting
either the two sides of the cord or the dorsal and
ventral ganglia
• Many interneurons have short axons distributed
locally, but some have axons that extend for several
spinal segments
Spinal cord
 The Peripheral
Nervous System
• The peripheral nerves system is
made of all the nerves of the body.
There are three types of nerves
which make the peripheral nervous
system, cranial nerves, spinal nerves
and visceral nerves. All these nerves
enter or leave the central nervous
system.
 The Peripheral
Nervous System
• Peripheral nerves can further be divided
into two parts.
• i) Voluntary nervous system
ii) Autonomic nervous system
• Voluntary Nervous System
• Those actions which are performed by humans
knowingly and need thinking are called voluntary
actions. For example, writing, dancing, cycling,
etc. Therefore, voluntary nervous system helps us
take voluntary actions which are under the
conscious control of brain.
 Autonomic Nervous
System
• Autonomic nervous system is a part of peripheral
nervous system. It controls the activities of the
organs inside our body automatically. This specific
network of nerves controls the processes like
breathing, heartbeat, digestion, sweating, etc.
The nerves of autonomic nervous system are
attaches with the smooth muscles of various
internal organs of a body like head, heart, blood
vessels, alimentary canal, lungs, kidneys, glands,
skin, etc.
Resting Membrane
Potential
 Nerve Impulse - The
Action Potential
• Threshold potential will
trigger an action
potential or nerve
impulse
• The action potential is
an all-or-none response
 Action potential
• Action potentials are generated by special types of
voltage-gated ion channels embedded in a cell's
plasma membrane.
• These channels are shut when the membrane potential is near
the (negative) resting potential of the cell, but they rapidly
begin to open if the membrane potential increases to a
precisely defined threshold voltage, depolarising the
transmembrane potential
• When the channels open, they allow an inward fIn neurons,
action potentials play a central role in
cell-to-cell communication by providing for—or with regard to
saltatory conduction, assisting—the propagation of signals
along the neuron's axon
• flow of sodium ions, which changes the electrochemical
gradient, which in turn produces a further rise in the
membrane potential
Action potential
 Saltatory Conduction
in Myelinated Axons
• Myelin sheathing has bare patches of axon called
nodes of Ranvier
• Action potentials jump from node to node
 Synapse
• Synapses may be electrical or chemical.
Electrical synapses make direct electrical
connections between neurons,[37] but
chemical synapses are much more common, and
much more diverse in function.[38] At a chemical
synapse, the cell that sends signals is called
presynaptic, and the cell that receives signals is
called postsynaptic.
• Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic areas are
full of molecular machinery that carries out the
signalling process.
 Synapse
• The presynaptic area contains large numbers of
tiny spherical vessels called synaptic vesicles,
packed with neurotransmitter chemicals
• When the presynaptic terminal is electrically
stimulated, an array of molecules embedded in
the membrane are activated, and cause the
contents of the vesicles to be released into the
narrow space between the presynaptic and
postsynaptic membranes, called the synaptic cleft.
• The neurotransmitter then binds to receptors
embedded in the postsynaptic membrane,
causing them to enter an activated state
Synapse
 Neurotransmitters
• Depending on the type of receptor, the resulting
effect on the postsynaptic cell may be excitatory,
inhibitory, or modulatory in more complex ways.
• For example, release of the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine at a synaptic contact between a
motor neuron and a muscle cell induces rapid
contraction of the muscle cell.
• The entire synaptic transmission process takes
only a fraction of a millisecond, although the
effects on the postsynaptic cell may last much
longer (even indefinitely, in cases where the
synaptic signal leads to the formation of a
memory trace).
 Neurotransmitters
• There are literally hundreds of different types of
synapses. In fact, there are over a hundred known
neurotransmitters, and many of them have multiple
types of receptors
• According to a rule called Dale's principle, which has
only a few known exceptions, a neuron releases the
same neurotransmitters at all of its synapses
• This does not mean, though, that a neuron exerts
the same effect on all of its targets, because the
effect of a synapse depends not on the
neurotransmitter, but on the receptors that it
activates.
Role of Acetylcholine
• Acetylcholine (ACh) is an
organic chemical that functions in the
brain and body of many types of animals
(and humans) as a neurotransmitter—a
chemical message released by nerve cells
to send signals to other cells, such as
neurons, muscle cells and gland cells
• Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used
at the neuromuscular junction—in other
words, it is the chemical that
motor neurons of the nervous system
release in order to activate muscles.
Role of Acetylcholine
• Acetylcholine is synthesized in certain neurons by
the enzyme choline acetyltransferase from the
compounds choline and acetyl-CoA.
• The enzyme acetylcholinesterase converts
acetylcholine into the inactive metabolites choline
and acetate. This enzyme is abundant in the
synaptic cleft, and its role in rapidly clearing free
acetylcholine from the synapse is essential for
proper muscle function.
• Certain neurotoxins work by inhibiting
acetylcholinesterase, thus leading to excess
acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction,
causing paralysis of the muscles needed for
breathing and stopping the beating of the heart.
Muscles contract when they receive signals from motor neurons. The neuromuscular junction is the site of the
signal exchange. The steps of this process in vertebrates occur as follows: (1) The action potential reaches the
axon terminal. (2) Calcium ions flow into the axon terminal. (3) Acetylcholine is released into the synaptic cleft.
(4) Acetylcholine binds to postsynaptic receptors. (5) This binding causes ion channels to open and allows
sodium ions to flow into the muscle cell. (6) The flow of sodium ions across the membrane into the muscle cell
generates an action potential which induces muscle contraction. Labels: A: Motor neuron axon B: Axon
terminal C: Synaptic cleft D: Muscle cell E: Part of a Myofibril
Role of Acetylcholine
 Receptors
• Receptors are biological transducers that convert
energy from both external and internal
environments into electrical impulses
• They may be massed together to form a sense
organ, such as the eye or ear, or they may be
scattered, as are those of the skin and viscera.
• Receptors are connected to the central
nervous system by afferent nerve fibres.
• The region or area in the periphery from which a
neuron within the central nervous system
receives input is called its receptive field.
 Types of Recptors
• Exterorecptors - report the senses of
sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch.
• Interorecptores - report the state of the
bladder, the alimentary canal, the
blood pressure, and the osmotic pressure
of the blood plasma.
• Chemical recptors - detectors of glucose
or of acid-base balance in the blood
• Thermorescptors – Temperature recptors
• Mechanical recptors – Pressure recptors
 Taste buds
• Taste buds contain the taste receptor
cells, which are also known as gustatory
cells.[1] The taste receptors are located
around the small structures known as
papillae found on the upper surface of the
tongue, soft palate, upper esophagus, the
cheek, and epiglottis
• On average, the human tongue has 2,000–
8,000 taste buds.[2] The average lifespan
of these are estimated to be 10 days
 Taste buds
• The bud is formed by two kinds of cells:
supporting cells and gustatory cells.
The supporting (sustentacular cells) are mostly
arranged like the staves of a cask, and form an
outer envelope for the bud. Some, however, are
found in the interior of the bud between the
gustatory cells. The gustatory (taste) cells, which
are chemoreceptors, occupy the central portion of
the bud; they are spindle-shaped, and each
possesses a large spherical nucleus near the
middle of the cell.
Transduction from
Taste bud
 Muscle
• Muscles function to produce force and motion.
• Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals.
Muscle cells contain protein filaments of actin
and myosin that slide past one another,
producing a contraction that changes both the
length and the shape of the cell.
• They are primarily responsible for maintaining
and changing posture, locomotion, as well as
movement of internal organs, such as the
contraction of the heart and the movement of
food through the digestive system via peristalsis
Tissues
 Smooth Muscle
• Smooth muscle (so-named because the cells do
not have striations) is present in the walls of
hollow organs like the urinary bladder, uterus,
stomach, intestines, and in the walls of
passageways, such as the arteries and veins of
the circulatory system, and the tracts of the
respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems.
Smooth muscle is also present in the eyes, where
it functions to change the size of the iris and alter
the shape of the lens; and in the skin where it
causes hair to stand erect in response to cold
temperature or fear.
Smooth Muscle
 Cardiac Muscle
• Cardiac muscle fibers generally only contain one
nucleus, located in the central region. They contain
many mitochondria and myoglobin
• However, cardiac muscle fibers are shorter than
skeletal muscle fibers and usually contain only one
nucleus, which is located in the central region of the
cell. Cardiac muscle fibers also possess many
mitochondria and myoglobin, as ATP is produced
primarily through aerobic metabolism. Cardiac
muscle fibers cells also are extensively branched and
are connected to one another at their ends by
intercalated discs. An intercalated disc allows the
cardiac muscle cells to contract in a wave-like pattern
so that the heart can work as a pump
Cardiac Muscle
 Skeletal muscle
• Skeletal muscle includes skeletal muscle fibers,
blood vessels, nerve fibers, and connective tissue
• . Each muscle fiber contains sarcolemma,
sarcoplasm, and sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• . The functional unit of a muscle fiber is called a
sarcomere.[2] Each myofiber is composed of actin
and myosin myofibrils repeated as a sarcomere
 Structure of Skeletal
Muscle
• Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single cylindrical muscle
cell. An individual skeletal muscle may be made up of
hundreds, or even thousands, of muscle fibers bundled
together and wrapped in a connective tissue covering.
• Each muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue
sheath called the epimysium. Fascia, connective tissue
outside the epimysium, surrounds and separates the
muscles. Portions of the epimysium project inward to
divide the muscle into compartments. Each
compartment contains a bundle of muscle fibers. Each
bundle of muscle fiber is called a fasciculus and is
surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the
perimysium. Within the fasciculus, each individual
muscle cell, called a muscle fiber, is surrounded by
connective tissue called the endomysium
 SKELETAL MUSCLE
FIBERS
• Because skeletal muscle cells are long and cylindrical, they
are commonly referred to as muscle fibers. Skeletal muscle
fibers can be quite large for human cells, with diameters up
to 100 μm and lengths up to 30 cm (11.8 in) in the Sartorius
of the upper leg.
• Some other terminology associated with muscle fibers is
rooted in the Greek sarco, which means “flesh.” The plasma
membrane of muscle fibers is called the sarcolemma, the
cytoplasm is referred to as sarcoplasm, and the specialized
smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which stores, releases, and
retrieves calcium ions (Ca++) is called the sarcoplasmic
reticulum (SR)
• the functional unit of a skeletal muscle fiber is the
sarcomere, a highly organized arrangement of the contractile
myofilaments actin (thin filament) and myosin (thick
filament), along with other support proteins.
 THE SARCOMERE
• The striated appearance of skeletal muscle fibers
is due to the arrangement of the myofilaments of
actin and myosin in sequential order from one
end of the muscle fiber to the other. Each packet
of these microfilaments and their regulatory
proteins, troponin and tropomyosin (along with
other proteins) is called a sarcomere.
 THE SARCOMERE
• The sarcomere is the functional unit of the muscle
fiber. The sarcomere itself is bundled within the
myofibril that runs the entire length of the muscle
fiber and attaches to the sarcolemma at its end.
As myofibrils contract, the entire muscle cell
contracts. Because myofibrils are only
approximately 1.2 μm in diameter, hundreds to
thousands (each with thousands of sarcomeres)
can be found inside one muscle fiber. Each
sarcomere is approximately 2 μm in length with a
three-dimensional cylinder-like arrangement and
is bordered by structures called Z-discs (also
called Z-lines)
 THE SARCOMERE
• Because the actin and its troponin-tropomyosin
complex (projecting from the Z-discs toward the
center of the sarcomere) form strands that are
thinner than the myosin, it is called the thin
filament of the sarcomere. Likewise, because the
myosin strands and their multiple heads
(projecting from the center of the sarcomere,
toward but not all to way to, the Z-discs) have
more mass and are thicker, they are called
the thick filament of the sarcomere.
 Neuromuscular
junction
• A neuromuscular junction is a chemical synapse
formed by the contact between a motor neuron and
a muscle fiber
• It is the site in which a motor neuron transmits a
signal to a muscle fiber to initiate muscle contraction.
The sequence of events that results in the
depolarization of the muscle fiber at the
neuromuscular junction begins when an action
potential is initiated in the cell body of a motor
neuron, which is then propagated by saltatory
conduction along its axon toward the neuromuscular
junction. Once it reaches the terminal bouton, the
action potential causes a Ca2+ ion influx into the
terminal by way of the
voltage-gated calcium channels
 Neuromuscular
junction
• The Ca2+ influx causes synaptic vesicles containing the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine to fuse with the plasma
membrane, releasing acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft
between the motor neuron terminal and the neuromuscular
junction of the skeletal muscle fiber.
• Acetylcholine diffuses across the synapse and binds to and
activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the
neuromuscular junction. Activation of the nicotinic receptor
opens its intrinsic sodium/potassium channel, causing sodium
to rush in and potassium to trickle out. As a result, the
sarcolemma reverses polarity and its voltage quickly jumps
from the resting membrane potential of -90mV to as high as
+75mV as sodium enters.
• The remaining acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft is either
degraded by active acetylcholine esterase or reabsorbed by
the synaptic knob and none is left to replace the degraded
acetylcholine.
Structure of neuromuscular junction.
 Excitation-contraction
coupling
• Excitation–contraction coupling occurs when
depolarization of skeletal muscle cell results in a muscle
action potential, which spreads across the cell surface
and into the muscle fiber's network of T-tubules, thereby
depolarizing the inner portion of the muscle fiber
• Ca2+ is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the
local junctional space, which then diffuses into the bulk
cytoplasm to cause a calcium spark.
• The Ca2+ released into the cytosol binds to Troponin C by
the actin filaments, to allow crossbridge cycling,
producing force and, in some situations, motion. The
sarco/endoplasmic reticulum calcium-ATPase (SERCA)
actively pumps Ca2+ back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• As Ca2+ declines back to resting levels, the force declines
and relaxation occurs.
Sliding filament theory
• The sliding filament theory describes a process
used by muscles to contract.
• It is a cycle of repetitive events that cause a thin
filament to slide over a thick filament and
generate tension in the muscle
• Crossbridge cycling is a sequence of molecular
events that underlies the sliding filament theory.
 Cross Bridge cycling
• A crossbridge is a myosin projection, consisting of
two myosin heads, that extends from the thick
filaments.[1] Each myosin head has two binding sites:
one for ATP and another for actin. Two Ca2+ ions bind
to troponin C on the actin filaments. The troponin-
Ca2+ complex causes tropomyosin to slide over and
unblock the remainder of the actin binding site
• Unblocking the rest of the actin binding sites allows
the two myosin heads to close and myosin to bind
strongly to actin.[24] The myosin head then releases
the inorganic phosphate and initiates a power stroke
• The power stroke moves the actin filament inwards,
thereby shortening the sarcomere.
 Cross Bridge cycling
• ATP to a myosin head detaches myosin from actin
, thereby allowing myosin to bind to another actin
molecule. Once attached, the ATP is hydrolyzed
by myosin, which uses the released energy to
move into the "cocked position" whereby it binds
weakly to a part of the actin binding site.
• Crossbridge cycling is able to continue as long as
there are sufficient amounts of ATP and Ca2+
in the cytoplasm
• . A lack of ATP would result in the rigor state
characteristic of rigor mortis
Mechanisms of smooth
muscle contraction
• The contractile activity of smooth muscle cells is
influenced by multiple inputs such as
spontaneous electrical activity, neural and
hormonal inputs, local changes in chemical
composition, and stretch
• This is in contrast to the contractile activity of
skeletal muscle cells, which relies on a single
neural input. Some types of smooth muscle cells
are able to generate their own action potentials
spontaneously, which usually occur following a
pacemaker potential or a slow wave potential
 coupling- cardiac
muscles
• Excitation-contraction coupling in cardiac muscle cells
occurs when an action potential is initiated by
pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node or
Atrioventricular node and conducted to all cells in the
heart via gap junctions. The action potential travels
along the surface membrane into T-tubules (the latter
are not seen in all cardiac cell types) and the
depolarisation causes extracellular Ca2+ to enter the
cell
• The cytoplasmic calcium binds to Troponin C, moving
the tropomyosin complex off the actin binding site
allowing the myosin head to bind to the actin filament.
From this point on, the contractile mechanism is
essentially the same as for skeletal muscle
 Energy coverage of muscle
contraction
• Muscles need energy to produce
contractions. The energy is derived
from adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
present in muscles. Muscles tend to contain
only limited quantities of ATP.
 The ATP-CP system
• When depleted, ATP needs to be
resynthesized from other sources,
namely creatine phosphate (CP)
and muscle glycogen.
Energy coverage
under maximum
workload
 Hormonal
Communication
• Endocrine glands are ductless glands of
the endocrine system that secrete their
products, hormones, directly into the blood
• The major glands of the endocrine system
include the pineal gland, pituitary gland,
pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland,
parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and
adrenal glands
 Hormones
• Endocrine organs are activated to release their
hormones by humoral, neural, or hormonal stimuli
• The hormones which they produce help to
regulate the functions of cells and tissues
throughout the body.
• The ability of a target cell to respond to a
hormone depends on the presence of receptors,
within the cell or on its plasma membrane, to
which the hormone can bind.
• Blood levels of hormones reflect a balance
between secretion and degradation/excretion.
 MECHANISM OF
HORMONE ACTION
 MECHANISM OF
HORMONE ACTION
 Endocrine
system
Nervous System Endocrine System

Electrical impulses are the messengers in the Hormones are the chemical messengers in the
nervous system endocrine system that target cells through the
bloodstream

Brain and the spinal cord constitute the Glands and organs like thyroid, pituitary glands
nervous system and reproductive organs (ovaries and testes) are
involved in the endocrine system

Nerve impulses are transmitted through Hormones are transmitted through blood vessels
neurons

The nervous system is under both voluntary The endocrine system is under involuntary control
and involuntary control

Nerve impulses make use of the The hormones enter into the target cells by
neurotransmitters at synaptic clefts and diffusing through the plasma membrane or by
sodium and potassium channels and enter the binding to the cell receptors
target cells.

Responses are localised Responses are widespread

COORDINATION IN
PLANTS