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Unit 1
Overview
COA
B-Tech AIML 2nd year
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Unit contents

 General Organization and Architecture

 Structural/ Functional View of Computer,
 Computer Functional Components

 References:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4TzMyXmzL8M
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Computer Architecture
 Deals with functional behavior of computer systems.
 Design implementation for various parts of the computer
systems.
 Layout/framework of machine which holds hardware
components on which software is built

Computer Organization
 Deals with structural relationship
 Operational attributes are linked together and contribute to
realize the architectural specification.
 Integrating all hardware components in single unit
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Architecture & Organization 1

 Architecture is those attributes visible to the

programmer
 that have a direct impact on logical execution of a program.
 Instruction set, number of bits used for data representation,
I/O mechanisms, addressing techniques.
 e.g. Is there a multiply instruction?

 Organization is how features are implemented

 Control signals, interfaces, memory technology.
 e.g. Is there a hardware multiply unit or is it done by
repeated addition?
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Architecture & Organization 2

 All Intel x86 family share the same basic architecture

 The IBM System/370 family share the same basic
architecture

 This gives code compatibility

 At least backwards

 Organization differs between different versions

Computer

Architecture and

Computer Organization
+ What is Computer Architecture and
Organization?
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IBM System
370 Architecture
 IBM System/370 architecture
 Was introduced in 1970
 Included a number of models
 Could upgrade to a more expensive, faster model without having
to abandon original software
 New models are introduced with improved technology, but retain
the same architecture so that the customer’s software
investment is protected
 Architecture has survived to this day as the architecture of IBM’s
mainframe product line

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Structure & Function

 Structure is the way in which components relate to

each other
 Function is the operation of individual components as
part of the structure
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Structure and Function

 Hierarchical system  Structure

 Set of interrelated  The way in which
subsystems
components relate to
 Hierarchical nature of each other
complex systems is  Function
essential to both their
design and their description  The operation of
individual components as
 Designer need only deal part of the structure
with a particular level of the
system at a time
 Concerned with structure
and function at each level

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Function
 There are four basic functions that a computer can perform:
 Data processing
 Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of
processing requirements is broad
 Data storage
 Short-term
 Long-term
 Data movement
 Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered
to a device (peripheral) that is directly connected to the
computer
 Data communications – when data are moved over longer
distances, to or from a remote device
 Control
 A control unit manages the computer’s resources and
orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in
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Functional Units of Digital
System
It is also known as ISA (Instruction set architecture) computer and is
having three basic units:

 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 The Main Memory Unit

 The Input/Output Device Let’s consider them in detail.

 1. Central Processing Unit-

 The central processing unit is defined as the it is an

electric circuit used for the executing the instruction of
computer program.

 It has following major components:

 1.Control Unit(CU)

 2.Arithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU)

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 3.variety of Registers
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 Control Unit –
A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals.
It directs all input and output flow, fetches code for
instructions, and controls how data moves around the
system.
 The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow
in and out of CPU and also controls all the operations of
ALU, memory registers and also input/output units.
 It is also responsible for carrying out all the instructions
stored in the program.
 It decodes the fetched instruction, interprets it and
sends control signals to input/output devices until the
required operation is done properly by ALU and
memory.
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Control Unit
 The Control Unit is classified into two major categories:
 1. Hardwired Control
 The Hardwired Control organization involves the control
logic to be implemented with gates, flip-flops,
decoders, and other digital circuits.
 2. Microprogrammed Control
 The Microprogrammed Control organization is
implemented by using the programming approach.

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 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) –

The arithmetic logic unit is that part of the CPU that
handles all the calculations the CPU may need, e.g.
Addition, Subtraction, Comparisons. It performs Logical
Operations, Bit Shifting Operations, and Arithmetic
operations.
 The ALU, as its name suggests performs mathematical
calculations and takes logical decisions. Arithmetic
calculations include addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division. Logical decisions involve comparison of
two data items to see which one is larger or smaller or
equal.

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 Input/Output Devices – Program or data is read into

main memory from the input device or secondary
storage under the control of CPU input
instruction. Output devices are used to output
information from a computer. If some results are
evaluated by the computer and it is stored in the
computer, then with the help of output devices, we can
present them to the user.

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 Registers – Registers refer to high-speed storage

areas in the CPU. The data processed by the CPU are
fetched from the registers. There are different types of
registers used in architecture :-
 A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU.
These are used to store the data which is directly used
by the processor. Registers can be of different sizes(16
bit, 32 bit, 64 bit and so on) and each register inside
the CPU has a specific function like storing data, storing
an instruction, storing address of a location in memory
etc.
 The user registers can be used by an assembly
language programmer for storing operands,
intermediate results etc. Accumulator (ACC) is the main
register in the ALU and contains one of the operands of
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an operation to be performed in the ALU.
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 Memory : Memory attached to the CPU is used for

storage of data and instructions and is called internal
memory The internal memory is divided into many
storage locations, each of which can store data or
instructions. Each memory location is of the same size
and has an address. With the help of the address, the
computer can read any memory location easily without
having to search the entire memory. when a program is
executed, it’s data is copied to the internal memory
and is stored in the memory till the end of the
execution.
 The internal memory is also called the Primary memory
or Main memory. This memory is also called as RAM,
i.e. Random Access Memory. The time of access of data
is independent of its location in memory, therefore this
memory
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Functional Units of Digital
System Cont…

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 Structure

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 CPU – controls the
operation of the computer
There are four and performs its data
main structural processing functions
components
of the  Main Memory – stores data
computer:  I/O – moves data between
the computer and its
external environment
 System Interconnection –
some mechanism that
provides for communication
among CPU, main memory,
and I/O
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+  Control Unit
CPU  Controls the operation of the CPU
and hence the computer
Major structural  Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
components:  Performs the computer’s data
processing function

 Registers
 Provide storage internal to the
CPU

 CPU Interconnection
 Some mechanism that provides
for communication among the
control unit, ALU, and registers

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Function

 All computer functions are:

 Data processing
 Data storage
 Data movement
 Control
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Functional View
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Structure - Top Level

Peripherals Computer

Central Main
Processing Memory
Unit

Computer
Systems
Interconnection

Input
Output
Communication
lines
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Structure - The CPU

CPU

Computer Arithmetic
Registers and
I/O Login Unit
System CPU
Bus
Internal CPU
Memory Interconnection

Control
Unit
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Structure - The Control Unit

Control Unit

CPU
Sequencing
ALU Login
Control
Internal
Unit
Bus
Control Unit
Registers Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory
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General System Architecture…

 In Computer Architecture, the General System

Architecture is divided into two major classification
units.
 Store Program Control Concept
 Flynn's Classification of Computers

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General System Architecture…

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 Store Program Control Concept

 The term Stored Program Control Concept refers to the

storage of instructions in computer memory to enable it to
perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently.

 The idea was introduced in the late 1040s by John von

Neumann who proposed that a program be electronically
stored in the binary-number format in a memory device so
that instructions could be modified by the computer as
determined by intermediate computational results.

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 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and

Computer)was the first computing system designed in
the early 1940s. It was based on Stored Program
Concept in which machine use memory for processing
data.
 Stored Program Concept can be further classified in
three basic ways:
 Von-Neumann Model
 General Purpose System
 Parallel Processing

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General System Architecture-
Von-Neumann Model
 Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in
1945 which was later known as Von-Neumann Architecture. It
consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and Logical Memory
Unit (ALU), Registers and Inputs/Outputs.
 Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program
computer concept, where instruction data and program data
are stored in the same memory. This design is still used in
most computers produced today.
 A Von Neumann-based computer:
 Uses a single processor
 Uses one memory for both instructions and data.
 Executes programs following the fetch-decode-execute cycle
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General System Architecture-
Von-Neumann Model

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General System Architecture-
Von-Neumann Model
General Purpose System
 The General Purpose Computer System is the modified
version of the Von-Neumann Architecture. In simple words, we
can say that a general purpose computer system is a modern
day architectural representation of Computer System.
 The CPU (Central Processing Unit) consists of the ALU
(Arithmetic and Logic Unit), Control Unit and various
processor registers.
 The CPU, Memory Unit and I/O subsystems are
interconnected by the system bus which includes data,
address, and control-status lines.
 The following image shows how CPU, Memory Unit and I/O
subsystems are connected through common single bus
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General System Architecture-
Von-Neumann Model

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+ General System Architecture-Von-
Neumann Model
Parallel Processing

 Parallel processing can be described as a class of techniques which

enables the system to achieve simultaneous data-processing tasks to
increase the computational speed of a computer system.

 A parallel processing system can carry out simultaneous data-

processing to achieve faster execution time. For instance, while an
instruction is being processed in the ALU component of the CPU, the
next instruction can be read from memory.

 The primary purpose of parallel processing is to enhance the computer

processing capability and increase its throughput, i.e. the amount of
processing that can be accomplished during a given interval of time.

 A parallel processing system can be achieved by having a multiplicity

of functional units that perform identical or different operations
simultaneously. The data can be distributed among various multiple
functional units.
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General System Architecture-
Von-Neumann Model
 Parallel Processing-The
following diagram
shows one possible
way of separating the
execution unit into
eight functional units
operating in parallel.
 The operation
performed in each
functional unit is
indicated in each block
if the diagram:
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Flynn's classification
 Flynn's classification divides computers into four major
groups that are:
 Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD)
 Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD)
 Multiple instruction stream, single data stream (MISD)
 Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream
(MIMD)

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Computer registers

 Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly

accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are
being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the
CPU are often termed as Processor registers.
 A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage
address, or any data (such as bit sequence or individual
characters).
 The computer needs processor registers for manipulating
data and a register for holding a memory address. The
register holding the memory location is used to calculate the
address of the next instruction after the execution of the
current instruction is completed.

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Computer registers

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Computer registers

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Computer registers

 The Memory unit has a capacity of 4096 words, and each word
contains 16 bits.
 The Data Register (DR) contains 16 bits which hold the operand read
from the memory location.
 The Memory Address Register (MAR) contains 12 bits which hold the
address for the memory location.
 The Program Counter (PC) also contains 12 bits which hold the
address of the next instruction to be read from memory after the
current instruction is executed.
 The Accumulator (AC) register is a general purpose processing
register.
 The instruction read from memory is placed in the Instruction
register (IR).
 The Temporary Register (TR) is used for holding the temporary data
during the processing.
 The Input Registers (IR) holds the input characters given by the user.
TheEducation,
 Pearson
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Inc., Hoboken, (OR)
NJ. All rights holds the output after processing the
reserved.
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How a program is executed by
a computer

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Program Execution

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System Hierarchy

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Evolution

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