Chapter One

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Wuletawu.E
[email protected]

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Course Objective

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 At the end of this course, students will be able to:
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 Understand what database is, database system and DBMS

 Differentiate database system from file system
 Identify the pros and cons of manual approach, file based approach and database approach
 Understand the basic principles of database design systems using different database models
 Appreciate the use of database system in the real world.
 Design different types of databases
 Understand database normalization & functional dependency
 Understand the principles of relational database management systems and their languages
 Understand file organizations and storage management, and index structure for files
 Demonstrate queries in the relational algebra.
 Demonstrate queries in the tuple relational calculus.
 Create a relational database schema in SQL that incorporates key, entity integrity, and
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referential integrity constraints.
4 Outline

 Overview
 Basics of Database
 File organization verses Database approach
 Users and actors of Database system
 Characteristics of the Database Approach
 Actors on the Scene

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5 Course Policy

 Attendance at all class sessions;

 Completing individual and group assignments
 Reading all reading assignments, references (opt)
 Regular and punctuality at lectures and presentations
 Submitting assignments within the deadline

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6 Overview
 Data: what is data?
 Facts concerning people, objects, events, other entities.
 The object could be any real world entity:- a thing, a place.
 Data can be in the form of text, graphics, audio, video, image and
others.
 Unprocessed, may not have a meaning and can be stored in database.
 Information: what is information?
 When data is processed, it will yield information.
 Data presented in a form suitable for interpretation and decision
making.
 Thus, information is processed and meaningful data.
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7 Graphical representation:

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8 Continued..

Database: what is database?

 It is an organized collection of logically related data.
 Data in a database is organized in such a way a computer can easily manage
the data and to generate information.
 It can generally be looked at as being a collection of records, each of which
contains one or more fields (i.e., pieces of data) about some entity (i.e.,
object), such as a person, organization, city, product.
 Thus, database is designed and populated with data for a specific purpose.
 For example: Student database,
 The Entity is a Student
 The database may contain records of hundred of thousands of
students.
 Each student record contains data fields like First_Name,
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Last_Name, birthdata, sex … about a single student.

9 Continued..

 A database is a collection of related data and data in a database is

shared.
 Related
 Data in a database is related in some way
 A collection of random data is not really a database in the true sense of
the word.
 Shared
 A database defined once and used simultaneously by many users.
 No separate file for each user.
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10 Applications of Database
 Example:
 Applications of database in our day to day activities.
 Ethio Telecom Database
 Check Balance
 Recharge balance
 Balance Transfer
 Bank Database
 ATM machine access you Account Balance in the Bank Database.
 Transfer Money
 Deposit Money
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11 Why do we need a database?
 To organize information
 To be able to get reports from data
 To protect data:- to apply security features
 To restrict unauthorized users
 To be able to share data
 To control redundancy
 To provide backup and recovery
 To provide multiple user interfaces
 To provide ease of updating data

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12 Data Management Approaches

 Data management: keeping your data records.

 Database systems passes through the different levels of
development along with the development in technology
and services.
 Manual approach
 File based system
 Database approach

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13 Manual approach
 Primitive and traditional way of information handling.
 Information are handled by using cards and papers.
 Files are labeled and stored in one or more cabinate.
 Storage and retrieval is performed using human labor.
 We may have an indexing system that helps us locate what we want more quickly.
 It works well while the number of files to be stored is small.
Limitations
 Prone to error
 Problem of data organization and duplication of data
 Difficult to retrieve, update
 Difficult to produce a report

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14 File based Approach
 Is an earlier attempt to computerize the manual filing system.
 File is a collection of records which contains logically related
data.
 There is one application program for each data which accesses it.
(Each program defines and manage its own data.)
 Data is not shared in this approach. (Each user has its own
copy instead of using sharing file.)
 It is a decentralized computerized data handling mechanism.
 In file based system, file is a collection of records contains
logically related data.
 Incompatible file formats: the structures of the file are dependent
on the application programming language. However, file
structure provided in one programming language such as direct
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file, indexed-sequential file which is available in COBOL
15 Continued..
 Fixed queries / proliferation of application programs
File-based systems are very dependent upon the application programmer. Any
required queries or reports have to be written by the application programmer.
 Limitations
 Limited data sharing – No centralized control of data
 Data dependency on the application (definitions of the data are
embedded in the application program).
 Duplication (redundancy) of data which remains wastage of space.
 Separation and Isolation of data.
 Data inconsistency and confusion.
 Poor security and administration.

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16 A universities file based system

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17 Database approach

 All the limitations of the file based approach can be attributed to two
factors:
 The definition of the data is embedded in the application programs,
rather than being stored separately and independently.
 There is no control over the access and manipulation of data beyond
that imposed by the application programs.
 Data base approach: is a system which improves many problems of file
based system. It is centralized computerized data handling mechanism.
 The database is a large repository of data, which is defined once and used
simultaneously by many departments and users.

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18 Continued…
 These improvements (advantages of database approach) are :
 Data can be shared:- there is a centralized database which can be
shared by different users.
 Data integrity:- database always contains consistent data.
 Control of data redundancy: the database approach attempts to
eliminate the redundancy by integrating the file.
 Increase data independency:- is the ability to change the format of
the data without changing the application program.
 The DBMS actually decouples application programs from data.
This provides the ability to change database definition without
changing the application program which access it.(Data
independence).
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19 Continued..
 Economy of scale
 Balance of conflicting requirements
 Improved data accessibility and responsiveness: By having an integration in
the database approach, data accessing can be crossed departmental boundaries.
 Increased productivity
 Improved maintenance
 Increased concurrency
 Improved backing and recovery services

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20 DBMS
 DBMS (Database Management System ): is a piece of software that
allows a user to define, create and manage the data in the database..
 A DBMS is a set of programs that enables users to create a database
and access the data in the database.
 A DBMS is a software system designed to
 store,
 manage, and
 facilitate access to databases.
 Every Database Software has DBMS at its core.
 Most database applications are created using an existing DBMS.
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21 Continued..
 A DBMS is general-purpose software
 i.e., not application specific.
 The same DBMS (e.g., Oracle, SQLServer, etc.) can be used in
different systems
 DBMS allows user to:
 input data,
 share the data,
 edit the data,
 manipulate the data,
 display the data in the database, and
 allows more than one user to share the data.
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22 A university’s Database system

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23 Disadvantage of Database approach

 Complexity
 Size
 Cost of DBMS
 Cost of conversion
 Performance
 Higher impact of a failure

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24 Characteristics of the Database Approach

The main characteristics of the database approach versus the file-processing

approach are the following:
I. Self-describing nature of a database system
II. Insulation between programs and data, and data abstraction
III. Support of multiple views of the data
IV. Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing

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25 1. Self-Describing Nature:
 A fundamental characteristic of the database approach is that the database system

contains not only the database itself but also a complete definition or description

of the database structure and constraints.

 This definition is stored in the DBMS catalog, which contains information such

as the structure of each file, the type and storage format of each data item, and

various constraints on the data.

 The information stored in the catalog is called meta-data, and it describes the

structure of the primary database.

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26 2. Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data
Abstraction:

 In traditional file systems, the structure of data files is embedded within the application
In traditional file processing, the structure of data files is embedded in the application
programs, so any changes to the structure of a file may require changing all programs that
access that file.

 By contrast, DBMS access programs do not require such changes in most cases. The
structure of data files is stored in the DBMS catalog separately from the access programs.
We call this property program-data independence.

 Data Abstraction:

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27 Data Abstraction

 A Database Management System (DBMS) supports data abstraction.

 Data abstraction means that a DBMS provides users with a simplified view of the system .
This means that the system hides certain details about how data is stored, created, and
managed.
 The primary purpose of a database system is to simplify its complexity for users.

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28 Three Levels of Abstraction

 Physical Level: The lowest level of abstraction, representing how data is physically stored
on the storage medium.
 Logical (Conceptual) Level: Represents the structure and relationships between data
entities without regard for physical storage.
 View Level: The highest level of abstraction, providing individual users with different
views of the data based on their needs and permissions.

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 3. Support of Multiple Views of the Data:
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 A database typically has many users, each of whom may require a different
perspective or view of the database.
 A view may be a subset of the database or it may contain virtual data that is
derived from the database files but is not explicitly stored.

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30 4. Sharing of Data and Multiuser
Transaction Processing
 A multiuser DBMS, as its name implies, must allow multiple users to access the

data-base at the same time. This is essential if data for multiple applications is to
be integrated and maintained in a single database. The concept of a transaction
has become central to many database applications.

 A transaction is an executing program or process that includes one or more

database accesses, such as reading or updating of database records.

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31 Actors on the Scene

In large organizations, numerous individuals are involved in the design, use, and
maintenance of a large database serving hundreds of users.
The people whose roles involve the day-to-day utilization of a large database are
referred to as actors on the scene and are classified as follows:

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32 Database Administrator (DBA)
In organizations where multiple individuals utilize shared resources, a chief
administrator is necessary to oversee and manage these resources. In a database
environment, the primary resource is the database itself, while the secondary
resource is the DBMS and associated software.
 The database administrator (DBA) is responsible for managing these resources.
 The DBA's duties include:
 Authorizing access to the database.
 Coordinating and monitoring database usage.
 Acquiring necessary software and hardware resources.
 The DBA is accountable for addressing issues such as security breaches and
poor system performance.

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33 Database Designers

 Database designers are responsible for:

 Determining the data that needs to be stored in the database.
 Selecting appropriate data structures to represent and store this data effectively.
 Database designers must communicate with all potential database users to
understand their requirements and create a design that meets their needs.
 They typically interact with each user group to develop database views that
satisfy the data and processing requirements of these groups.

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34 End Users
End users are individuals whose jobs require accessing the database for tasks like querying,
updating, and generating reports. The database primarily exists to serve their needs.
 There are various categories of end users:
 Casual End Users: They access the database occasionally and may require different
information each time.
 Casual users typically learn only a few database functions that they use repeatedly.
 Naive or Parametric End Users: Their primary job function involves frequent
querying and updating of the database using standard types of queries and updates
known as canned transactions, which are pre-programmed and tested.
 For example, clerical staff in banks often fall into this category. They may not have
extensive DBMS knowledge but still use the database to perform their tasks.
Reservation Agents: These individuals work in industries like airlines, hotels, and
car rental companies. They check availability for requests and make reservations.

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Sophisticated End Users:

 Include engineers, scientists, and business analysts who strive to learn most
DBMS functionalities to fulfill their complex requirements.
Stand-Alone Users:
 Maintain personal databases using pre-built software packages that offer user-
friendly menu-based or graphical interfaces.

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